The  Science  of  Burning  Liquid  Fuel 


WILLIAM   NEWTON  BEST. 


AS  THE  YOUNGEST  OF  A  LARGE 
FAMILY  IT  WAS  MY  CUSTOM  IN 
CHILDHOOD  TO  BRING  MY  EXAM- 
PLES AND  COMPOSITIONS  TO  MY 
BROTHERS  AND  SISTERS  FOR  THEIR 
CORRECTION  AND  APPROVAL.  SO 
NOW  I  BRING  TO  THEM  THESE  PAGES, 
WHICH  REPRESENT  THE  LABOR  OF 
MANY  YEARS  SPENT  IN  MAKING  EX- 
HAUSTIVE TESTS,  LESS  CONFIDENT 
OF  THEIR  APPROVAL,  BUT  MORE  FUL- 
LY APPRECIATING  THEIR  LOVE.  TO 
THESE  DEAR  ONES,  WHO  EACH 
IN  THEIR  OWN  WAY,  AIDED  AND 
ENCOURAGED  ME  IN  MY  CHOSEN 
CALLING,  I  AFFECTIONATELY  DEDI- 
CATE THIS  BOOK. 


IWlifii?   The  '    ;  :     _ 

Science  of  Burning 
Liquid  Fuel 

A  Practical  Book  for  Practical  Men 


BY 


WILLIAM     NEWTON     BEST 


Engineer  in  Caloric,  Member  American  Railway  Master  Mechanics' 
Assn.,  American  Society  Mechanical     Engineers,     and 
American   Institute  Mining   Engineers. 


The    burners,    furnaces    and    various    installations    described    in 

this    book   are    fully    protected   by    Letters    Patents, 

and    all    are     in     successful     operation. 


COPYRIGHT,  1913,  BY  WILLIAM  NEWTON  BEST. 


Table  of  Contents 


Introduction 


Chapter        1.  Liquid  Fuel,  Its   Origin,  Production   and 

Analysis 15 

Chaper        II.     Atomization 21 

Chapter     III.     Oil  Systems 30 

Chapter     IV.     Refractory  Material 42 

Chapter       V.     Locomotive  Equipment    46 

Chapter     VI.     Stationary  and  Marine  Boilers 55 

apter   VII.     Ovens     75 

Chapter  VIII.     Furnaces 83 

Index  .  ,  154 


333753 


The  Science  of  Burning  Liquid  Fuel, 


The  Science  of  Burning  Liquid  Fuel. 


Introduction. 

The  author  of  this  book  began  the  study  of 
liquid  fuel  while  Master  Mechanic  and  Superin- 
tendent of  the  Los  Angeles  Electric  Railway  in 
the  year  1887.  We  used  the  Daft  system  of  elec- 
tricity. This  system  had  previously  operated  an 
electric  railway  in  Boston,  Mass.  They,  however, 
did  not  have  the  overhead  wire,  but  used  the  third 
rail  system.  Ours  was  the  first  overhead  system 
of  electric  railroad  in  the  United  States,  if  not  in 
the  world.  A  view  of  the  electric  motor  car  then 
used  on  this  road  is  here  given.  You  can  also  see 
the  first  electric  locomotive  with  two  trailers  at- 
tached. It  may  be  of  interest  to  here  state  that 
after  building  the  Myrtle  Avenue  branch  of  this 
road  (which  was  a  branch  of  the  main  line  to 
Pico  Heights),  I  reported  to  the  Board  of  Direc- 
tors that  we  should  purchase  motor  cars  for  the 
branch  line  and  not  use  the  electric  locomotive 
and  trailers,  because  the  latter  was  more  costly 
to  operate,  but  I  also  made  the  statement  that  in 
a  few  years  electric  locomotives  would  be  used 
instead  of  steam  locomotives  in  certain  branches 


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THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID  FUEL  3 

of  work  and  for  that  service  they  would  be  better 
than  electric  motor  cars.  This  portion  of  my 
report  caused  considerable  merriment  as  there 
were  grave  doubts  in  the  minds  of  many  as  to 
the  fulfilment  of  this  prophecy. 

The  boilers  to  which  I  first  applied  oil  as  fuel 
were  the  "Hazelton,"  and  manufactured  in  New 
York  City.  The  burners,  if  such  they  could  be 
called,  were  made  of  gas  pipe,  and  produced  a 
round  flame.  These  were  soon  changed  to  the 
flat  type  by  simply  flattening  the  pipe  in  a  black- 
smith's forge  so  that  the  nozzle  would,  in  a  meas- 
ure, produce  a  flat  flame,  but  which  in  reality  pro- 
duced a  very  uneven,  irregular  flame.  The  steam 
and  the  oil  passed  out  in  the  same  direction 
through  the  one  orifice  which  often  resulted  in 
much  carbon  forming  therein,  and  necessitated 
the  apparatus  being  removed  quite  frequently  in 
order  to  remove  the  carbon  which  collected  in 
the  mouth  piece.  The  equipment  was  exceeding- 
ly crude.  I  have  since  thought  it  was  even  more 
crude  than  the  oil  we  were  attempting  to  burn. 
We  were,  however  (after  much  experimenting), 
able  to  get  the  normal  rating  of  the  boiler,  but 
several  months  passed  before  this  was  accom- 
plished. The  oil  was  very  heavy,  being  between 
14  and  18  gravity  Baume  and  of  asphaltum  base. 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID  FUEL 

While  endeavoring  to  obtain  information  from 
those  in  the  Eastern  States  and  in  Russia  who 
claimed  to  have  burned  oil,  I  found  that  they 
were  laymen  in  the  art  of  burning  the  new  fuel, 
and  that  I  would  have  to  put  out  to  sea  without 
any  compass  to  guide  me. 

We  obtained  our  supply  of  crude  oil  from 
wells  in  the  Puente  fields  about  30  miles  from  Los 
Angeles.  Often  it  was  reported  that  the  supply 
was  about  exhausted  and  at  times  we  were  not 
sure  of  getting  enough  for  our  requirements. 
Again  too,  the  coal  interests  were  endeavoring  to 
protect  themselves  from  inroads  by  the  oil  com- 
pany which  made  the  consumer  doubly  careful. 
A  number  of  firms  installed  oil  fuel  upon  their 
boilers  but  had  difficulty  with  the  elements  of 
the  boiler  being  injured  or  with  not  being  able  to 
maintain  the  required  steam  pressure.  Thus  be- 
coming disgusted  with  the  new  fuel,  nearly  all  of 
these  firms  returned  to  the  use  of  coal,  believing 
that  the 'kind  of  crude  oil  which  we  had  in  South- 
ern California  was  not  commercially  a  success  as 
a  fuel.  The  author  however,  was  never  discour- 
aged but  was  alert  to  each  new  development  in 
the  changes  of  brick  work,  different  locations  of 
the  burner  and  the  air  openings  through  which 
the  air  could  enter  to  effect  combustion  until  he 
became  convinced  that  it  was  the  fuel  of  the 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID  FUEL  5 

twentieth  century.  In  order  to  obtain  satisfactory 
results  I  realized  it  had  to  be  scientifically  burned 
and  that  careful  consideration  was  necessary  in 
order  to  achieve  the  highest  efficiency  and  the 
strictest  economy.  After  twenty-five  years  of 
study,  I  take  pleasure  in  giving  to  the  world  some 
of  the  results  achieved  by  the  use  of  this  incom- 
parable fuel. 

After  we  had  had  the  new  fuel  in  service  for 
several  years,  other  manufacturers  became  im- 
pressed with  the  fact  that  the  California  crude  oil 
could  be  successfully  burned  and  began  to  adopt 
it  as  a  fuel. 

The  first  locomotive  I  endeavored  to  equip 
was  while  I  was  Master  Mechanic  of  the  Los  An- 
geles and  Redondo  Ry.  Many,  many  were  the 
discouragements  encountered  before  success 
crowned  our  efforts  and  demonstrated  that  crude 
oil  was  a  God-send  to  both  the  engineer  and  fire- 
man as  this  fuel  increased  the  tonnage  of  the  lo- 
comotive fully  15%  over  coal  and  they  could 
maintain  the  steam  pressure  at  just  below  the 
limit  required  to  prevent  steam  escaping  through 
the  pop  valves.  So  successful  was  it  on  this  road 
that  I  received  a  call  to  another  road  which  had 
attempted  but  failed  to  burn  this  fuel.  It  was  while 
Superintendent  of  Motive  Power  and  Machinery 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID  FUEL  7 

of  this  road  (The  Los  Angeles  Terminal  Ry., 
which  afterwards  became  the  San  Pedro,  Los  An- 
geles &  Salt  Lake  R.  R.),  that  I  invented  my  own 
burner.  The  locomotive  which  carried  my  first 
locomotive  burner  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  I  had  tried 
every  form  and  type  of  burner  up  to  that  time 
and  saw  imperfections  of  construction  and  opera- 
tion which  I  strove  to  obviate  by  making  a  burner 
foreign  to  all  others. 

My  experience  in  burning  liquid  fuel  in  fur- 
naces began  while  I  was  Superintendent  of  the 
California  Industrial  Company's  Rolling  Mill  in 
Los  Angeles.  We  manufactured  commercial  iron 
(bar  iron  of  all  sizes  and  shapes)  from  scrap  iron 
and  soft  steel.  Many  people  have  stated  that  oil 
can  not  successfully  weld  iron  and  steel  while 
others,  who  have  successfully  used  oil  as  fuel,  state 
that  oil  is  the  only  fuel  for  this  class  of  work  as 
it  does  not  change  the  nature  of  the  metal.  As  we 
only  had  scrap  iron  and  soft  steel  to  make  the 
bar  iron  from  and  as  crude  oil  was  our  only  avail- 
able fuel,  it  was  necessary  to  weld  it  perfectly; 
and,  without  fear  of  contradiction,  will  say  that 
no  better  iron  can  be  made  than  that  produced 
with  oil  fuel,  as  oil,  when  properly  used,  is  a  puri- 
fier of  metals. 

Since    leaving    the  Rolling    Mill  I  have  in- 


8  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID   FUEL 

stalled  oil  burners  and  supplied  designs  for  the 
construction  of  nearly  every  form  of  furnace  in- 
cluding the  following:  Annealing,  asphaltum 
mixers,  babbit  heating,  bolt  making,  brass  melt- 
ing, brazing,  bread  ovens,  etc.,  brick  and  art  tile 
kilns,  case  hardening,  cast  iron  melting,  cement 
kiln  rotary,  channel  iron  heating,  chocolate  bean 
roasters,  continuous  heating,  copper  plate,  core 
drying,  crematories,  crucible  brass  melting,  cru- 
cible steel  melting,  drop  forge  work,  enameling, 
flue  welding,  glass  lehrs,  glass  melting,  incinera- 
tors, indirect-fired,  japanning  ovens,  ladle  heat- 
ing, locomotive  steam  raising,  locomotive  tire 
heating,  malleable  iron,  mould  drying,  ore  smelt- 
ing, plate  heating,  pipe  bending,  pipe  flange  weld- 
ing, portable  torches,  rivet  making,  rolling  mill 
work,  rotary  kilns,  shaft  and  billet  heating,  sand 
drying,  sheet  steel  heating,  steel  melting,  steel 
mixers,  tar  stills,  tempering,  welding  scrap  iron, 
wire  annealing,  wire  making.  This  book  will 
show  some  of  the  different  installations  and  the 
results  obtained  therefrom. 

The  burning  of  liquid  fuel  is  a  science,  It 
can  be  burned  either  wastefully  or  economically. 
In  order  to  obtain  the  highest  possible  efficiency 
and  strictest  economy  from  any  installation  the 
oil  system  must  be  installed  and  operated  upon 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID  FUEL  9 

scientific  principles.  I  am  aware  that  many  arti- 
cles have  been  published  on  oil  burning.  Some 
have  contained  much  valuable  information,  while 
others  it  has  simply  been  a  waste  of  time  to  read, 
because  of  the  fact  that  the  writer  himself  was 
not  familiar  with  the  subject.  Several  years  ago 
I  read  an  article  on  the  different  methods  of  burn- 
ing oil  and  when  I  visited  the  city  in  which  the 
author  resides,  I  called  upon  the  gentleman,  for 
I  desired  to  ask  him  several  questions  on  points 
not  clear  to  me.  This  man  acknowledged  that  he 
had  never  burned  a  gallon  of  oil  in  his  life  and 
that  his  article  was  simply  a  compilation  of  reports 
on  tests  made  by  others,  he  not  even  having  been 
present  at  any  of  the  tests.  The  burners  described 
in  his  treatise  all  seem  to  fit  perfectly  and  operate 
without  the  slightest  difficulty.  The  equipment 
which  he  described  reminded  me  of  an  artist's 
girl  friend  who,  in  describing  the  ability  of  the 
artist,  stated  that  one  of  the  portraits  which  she 
painted  of  a  gentleman  was  so  perfect  that  it  had 
to  be  shaved  twice  a  week.  My  point  is  that  if 
a  man  wishes  to  write  a  treatise  on  welding  iron, 
he  should  first  learn  how  to  make  a  weld  himself 
for  sometime  he  is  liable  to  meet  a  man  from 
Missouri  "who  will  want  to  be  shown,"  and  Mr. 
Author  might  then  be  humiliated  because  of  his 
imaginary  ability.  Theory  is  needed  but  without 


io  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID   FUEL 

practical  knowledge  it  is  like  faith  without  works, 
it  is  dead.  To  say  the  least  it  is  disappointing,  es- 
pecially in  regard  to  the  subject  of  heat, 
which  we  have  been  studying  for  centuries 
and  by  the  knowledge  of  which  we  have 
raised  ourselves  above  the  brute  creation 
and  the  Stone  Age.  A  short  time  ago  while  ad- 
dressing some  students  I  asked,  "What  is  the  pro- 
pelling power  of  a  steam  locomotive?"  They 
thought  long  and  hard,  and  at  last  after  mention- 
ing almost  every  part  of  the  locomotive  one  stu- 
dent in  desperation  said  "Heat,"  which  of  course 
is  the  propelling  power  of  a  steam  locomotive. 

While  it  is  not  possible  for  an  engineer  in 
calorics  to  tell  you  how  many  gallons  of  oil  are 
required  to  run  a  locomotive  over  a  division  of  a 
railroad  without  knowing  her  tonnage  and  the 
average  grades  or  to  tell  you  how  much  oil  a  bur- 
ner will  burn  without  having  full  particulars  in 
regards  to  installation,  or  to  even  guess  how  much 
oil  will  be  used  in  a  furnace  without  knowing  its 
exact  form  and  proportions,  temperature  re- 
quired, the  size  and  quantity  of  metal  to  be  heat- 
ed in  the  furnace  per  hour  or  per  day,  yet  he 
should  have  such  a  knowledge  of  his  business  and 
the  capacity  of  the  oil  burner  that  he  can  recom- 
mend an  installation  which  will  not  prove  a  farce. 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID  FUEL  n 

If  it  is  a  copper  refining  furnace  (such  as  is  des- 
cribed in  this  book)  he  should  know  the  size  of 
burner  required,  the  amount  of  air  needed  to 
reduce  and  refine  a  given  charge  of  such  metal, 
or  if  an  annealing  furnace  he  should  be  capable 
of  figuring  out  the  graduated  size  and  location  of 
heat  ports  necessary  to  give  an  even  distribution 
of  heat  throughout  the  entire  length,  width  and 
height  of  the  furnace.  I  consider  that  a  man  is 
simply  playing  or  guessing  who  first  installs  three 
or  four  oil  burners  in  a  furnace  and  then  if  they 
do  not  give  the  required  heat,  installs  three  or 
four  more.  This  is  not  the  intelligent  way  of  sol- 
ving an  engineering  problem.  It  is  simply  the 
old  "rule  of  thumb." 

I  have  been  asked  if  every  man  or  firm  makes 
a  success  of  burning  liquid  fuel.  To  this  I  always 
answer  "No.  Many  cannot  burn  oil  successfully." 
The  next  inquiry  is  "Why  not?"  My  answer  is 
"Some  men  cannot  learn  to  play  the  piano,  others 
the  harp.  Some  women  are  good  cooks  but  can- 
not sew,  and  vice  versa.  Many  men  cannot  burn 
coal  or  wood  advantageously,  and  therefore  I  can 
frankly  make  the  statement  that  many  cannot 
learn  how  to  burn  liquid  fuel."  I  have  been  often 
amused  at  men  wanting  to  run  tests  on  boilers 
and  furnaces,  using  all  the  different  types  of  burn- 


12  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID    FUEL 

ers  which  they  can  borrow  for  the  occasion.  The 
men  conducting  the  tests,  never  having  had  any 
theoretical  or  practical  experience  in  the  burn- 
ing of  oil  or  tar,  their  efforts  are  not  a  compliment 
to  any  of  the  burners.  The  result  is  as  absurd  as 
though  two  men,  neither  of  whom  had  ever  pre- 
viously shot  off  a  gun,  were  to  institute  a  shooting 
contest,  borrowing  as  many  weapons  as  they 
could  from  the  various  gun  manufacturers,  assur- 
ing them  that  the  result  of  the  contest  would  be 
of  great  advantage  to  the  firm  that  was  fortunate 
enough  to  win  in  the  contest.  Let  me  assure  the 
reader  that  the  man  who  has  never  shot  off  a  gun 
(or  the  man  who  has  never  operated  a  burner) 
had  better  become  familiar  with  their  construc- 
tion and  operation  before  exhibiting  the  results 
of  the  contest  as  otherwise  there  might  be  some 
people  who  would  not  consider  their  efforts  a 
criterion,  and  if  their  statement  is  incorrect  they 
might  have  to  meet  the  result  of  said  decision  in 
after  years.  I  have  known  officials  to  be  dis- 
charged because  they  selected  an  inferior  article 
and  after  years  had  elapsed,  another  test  with  one 
of  the  same  burners  revealed  the  fact  that  the  su- 
perior device  had  been  rejected  at  the  first  test, 
resulting  in  irreparable  loss  to  their  firm  of  hun- 
dreds of  dollars  in  fuel  and  thousands  of  dollars  in 
output.  Under  such  circumstances  any  man 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID  FUEL  13 

should  be  dismissed  for  incompetency.  The  most 
dangerous  man  on  earth  is  an  egotistical  "Jack  of 
all  trades."  Personally  I  would  just  as  soon  give 
my  watch  to  be  cleaned  or  repaired  to  a  man  who 
has  never  repaired  one  as  to  give  a  burner  to  an 
inexperienced  man  to  run  one  of  these  so-called 
tests. 

W.  N.  BEST. 


CHAPTER  I. 

LIQUID  FUEL— ITS  ORIGIN,  PRODUCTION, 
AND  ANALYSIS. 

Scientists  tell  us  that  petroleum  is  the  result 
of  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter  and 
fish  during  the  antediluvian  ages.  It  was  first 
discovered  in  the  United  States  in  1859  at  Titus- 
ville,  Pa.  During  the  first  year  only  2,000  barrels 
(42  gallons  each)  were  produced.  Since  then, 
each  succeeding  year  the  production  and  demand 
have  increased,  until  the  world's  consumption 
now  aggregates  1,000,000  barrels  a  day.  In  the 
year  1911,  the  United  States  alone  produced  220,- 
440,391  barrels  or  63.80%  of  the  total  world  pro- 
duction. Six  of  the  leading  states  produced  as 
follows: 

California 81,134,391  barrels  of  oil 

Oklahoma   ....   56,069,637 

Illinois  ^; .   ^ .  31,317,038      "        V     " 

Louisiana  10,720,420      " 

West  Virginia  . .  9,795,463      "        "     " 
Texas   9,526,474  "     " 

There  are  two  kinds  of  oil  or  petroleum,  one 
having  parafine  base  and  the  other  asphaltum 


16  THE   SCIENCE    OF   BURNING   LIQUID    FUEL 

base.  Either  may  be  used  as  fuel  in  its  crude 
state,  but  both  are  largely  distilled  in  order  to 
obtain  the  more  volatile  oils,  such  as  gasoline, 
benzine,  kerosene,  etc.  The  residue  is  called  Fuel 
Oil  and  is  used  in  every  class  of  service  where 
coal,  coke,  wood  or  gas  can  be  used.  It  has  proven 
a  most  superior  fuel  because  the  operator  has  the 
fire  under  perfect  control  at  all  times  and  can  at- 
tain and  maintain  the  heat  required. 

The  analysis  of  Fuel  Oil  is  as  follows: 

Carbon 84.35% 

Hydrogen  11.33% 

Oxygen  2.82% 

Nitrogen 60% 

Sulphur   90% 

Gravity,  from  26  to  28  Baume. 

Weight  per  gallon,  7.3  Ibs. 

Vaporizing  point,  130  deg.  Fahr. 

Calorific  Value  varies  from  18,350  to 
19,348  B.  T.  U.  per  Ib. 

Analysis  of  Beaumont  (Texas)  Crude  Oil: 

Carbon  84.60% 

Hydrogen   10.90% 

Sulphur   1.63% 

Oxygen   2.87% 

Gravity,  21  Baume. 
Weight  per  gallon,  7.5  Ibs. 


LIQUID    FUEL-ORIGIN,    PRODUCTION,    ANALYSIS        17 

Calorific  value,  19,060  B.  T.  U.  per  Ib. 
Vaporizing  point,  142  deg.  Fahr. 

Analysis  of  California  Crude  Oil:  (heavy  oils) 
Carbon  .......................  81.52% 

Hydrogen   ....................   11.01% 

Sulphur   ........................  55% 


....................  6.92% 

Oxygen    j  ..................... 

Gravity  varies  from  12  to  36  Baume. 

Weight  per  gallon,  7.6  Ibs. 

Calorific  value  varies  from  18,462  to 

20,680  B.  T.  U.  per  Ib. 
Vaporizing  point,  230  deg.  Fahr. 

Analysis  of  Mexican  Crude  Oil:  (Tampico  Fields) 
Carbon  .......................  82.83% 

Hydrogen   ....................   12.19% 

Oxygen    ..................  .  .....  43% 

Nitrogen  ...........................    1.72% 

Sulphur   ......................     2.83% 

Gravity  varies  from  12  to  23.8  Baume. 
Weight  per  gallon,  7.82  Ibs. 
Calorific  value,  18,493  B.  T.  U.  per  Ib. 
Vaporizing  point,  175  deg.  Fahr. 

Note.  —  The  British  unit  of  heat,  or  British  thermal  unit  (B.T.U.) 
herein  referred  to,  is  that  quantity  of  heat  which  is  required  to 
raise  the  temperature  of  i  Ib.  of  pure  water  I  deg.  Fahr.  at  39  deg. 
Fahr.,  the  temperature  of  maximum  density  of  water. 


18  THE   SCIENCE    OF   BURNING    LIQUID    FUEL 

At  this  time  the  oil  fields  of  Mexico  are  at- 
tracting a  great  deal  of  attention  because  of  their 
magnitude.  The  proven  territory  of  oil  produc- 
ing land  in  Mexico  is  considered  by  many  scien- 
tists the  most  valuable  fields  on  this  planet,  and 
those  who  have  carefully  examined  the  fields  and 
are  competent  to  judge,  prophesy  that  that  coun- 
try will  produce  more  oil  than  the  combined  pro- 
duction of  all  other  sections  of  the  world.  The 
Mexican  oil  is  high  in  calorific  value  per  gallon, 
and  is  especially  adapted  for  fuel  in  its  crude  state 
but  not  for  refining.  It  is  therefore  fortunate  that 
these  fields  have  been  discovered  in  order  to  sup- 
ply the  growing  demand  for  crude  oil,  but  I  be- 
lieve that  other  new  fields  will  be  discovered  and 
developed  with  the  ever-increasing  demand  until 
every  coal-producing  country  will  have  an  abun- 
dant supply  of  petroleum.  The  crude  oil  of  Rus- 
sia, Roumania  and  Borneo  has  approximately  the 
same  calorific  value  as  that  of  the  Beaumont 
fields  in  Texas,  while  the  oil  thus  far  discovered  in 
Argentine  Republic,  Chile  and  Peru,  is  of  approx- 
imately the  same  calorific  value  and  gravity  as 
the  California  petroleum. 

Oil  tar  is  a  by-product  of  the  water  gas  system 
used  in  numerous  gas  works.  Coal  tar  is  a  by-pro- 
duct from  coke  oven  benches.  When  either  of 


LIQUID    FUEL— ORIGIN,    PRODUCTION,    ANALYSIS        19 

these  tars  are  heated  sufficiently  to  reduce  their 
viscosity,  they  are  a  most  excellent  fuel.  Per 
pound  their  calorific  value  is  less  than  that  of  oil 
but  as  they  weigh  from  9.5  to  10  Ibs.  per  gallon, 
while  fuel  oil  only  weighs  7.3  Ibs.  per  gallon,  their 
calorific  value  per  gallon  is  greater  than  that  of 
fuel  oil.  Oil  tar  has  a  calorific  value  of  16,970 
B.  T.  U.  per  Ib.  or  161,200  B.  T.  U.  per  gallon, 
while  that  of  coal  tar  is  16,260  B.  T.  U.  per  Ib.  or 
162.600  B.  T.  U.  per  gallon. 

Analysis  of  London  Tar  and  Tar  from  Domin- 
ion Coal: 


Carbon 
Hydrogen 
ISTitroapn 

London 
77.53 
6.33 
1.03 

Dominion 
81.50 
5.68 

JL  «  A  V*  ^  ^^  Al 

Oxygen 
Sulphur 

14.50 
.61 

12.45 

.37 

20 


THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID   FUEL 


The  following  list  showing  typical  value  of 
the  various  kinds  of  fuel  may  be  of  service  to  the 
reader: 


KIND 

B.  T.  U. 
Per  Lb. 

Lbs. 
Per 
Gal. 

B.  T.  U. 
Per   Gal. 

Liquid 
Fuel  Oil   (residium  of  Petroleum)  .... 
Beaumont  crude  petroleum    

19,000 
19,060 

7-3 

7-5 

138,700 
142,950 

California                                      
Lima                                               
Pennsylvania    crude 

19,500 

1  8  O40 

7.6 

7-5 

7.5 

147,200 
141,150 
142,050 

Kerosene                                                   •  •  • 

16120 

7-2 

116,000 

Gasolene                           

14  20O 

S-9 

83.780 

Denaturized    Alcohol                      

T?  i  An 

S-7 

74,900 

Alcohol   (QO  per  cent)                            .  .  . 

10  080 

5.6 

56,500 

16260 

10.  0 

162,600 

Oil       "                

1  6  970 

9-5 

161,200 

Solid 
Pocahontas    coal 

I  ^  301 

Bituminus       "    (Pittsburg)      

T2  141 

"               "   (Illinois) 

10  506 

Anthracite                                 

n  180 

Coke                        

13.000 

Gaseous 
Illuminating  Gas   (City  coal  gas).... 
Natural   Gas                                           .... 

PerCu.    Ft. 
550  to  650 
800  to  i  ,000 

Producer  Gas           

130 

3>l/4  Bbls.  Oil  (42  gals,  per  bbl.)   —  5000  Ibs.  Hickory. 
3%  Bbls.  Oil  (42  gals,  per  bbl.)   =  4550  Ibs.   White   Oak. 


CHAPTER  II. 

ATOMIZATION. 

Thousands  of  patents  have  been  issued  by  our 
government  to  inventors  covering  oil  or  tar  atomi- 
zers or  burners.  Many  of  these  inventions  involve 
the  same  principle  and  all  may  be  grouped  in  three 
distinct  classes,  viz.:  mechanical,  internal  mixing 
and  external  atomizing.  Many  people  have  sup- 
posed that  by  simply  mashing  down  a  piece  of  pipe 
and  coupling  it  to  a  steam  or  air  and  oil  supply 
line,  they  have  evolved  a  cheap  burner;  a  burner 
which  in  99  cases  out  of  100,  they  have  seen  work- 
ing in  some  other  shop.  They  very  seldom  state 
just  where  they  have  seen  it  in  operation  and  often 
claim  that  it  is  their  own  invention  and  that  it  only 
cost  about  fifteen  or  twenty  cents  to  make.  But 
there  is  another  side  to  be  considered.  The  first 
cost  of  an  article  may  be  a  trifle  but  that  is  no  sign 
that  the  article  is  really  cheap.  One  must  consider 
what  the  device  will  have  cost  in  time,  labor  and 
fuel  at  the  expiration  of  a  year  or  more.  One  of 
the  greatest  abuses  of  liquid  fuel  is  the  endeavor 
to  use  it  with  burners  that  do  not  thoroughly  atom- 
ize the  oil  and  evenly  distribute  the  heat  through- 
out the  entire  fire-box  or  the  charging  space  of 


22  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID   FUEL 

the  furnace.  A  burner  should  be  of  such  construc- 
tion that  it  can  be  filed  or  fitted  to  make  a  long 
narrow  flame  or  a  broad  fan  shaped  blaze  fitting 
the  entire  length  and  width  of  a  fire-box  or  fur- 
nace as  evenly  as  a  blanket  covers  a  bed.  A  burn- 
er, wherein  the  base  of  the  fuel  carbonizes  over 
the  fuel  passage,  is  absolutely  worthless  for  it 
should  be  capable  of  atomizing  any  gravity  of  fuel 
procurable  in  the  open  market  without  either 
clogging  or  carbonizing,  no  matter  whether  it  be 
fuel  oil  of  very  light  gravity  or  crude  oil,  oil  tar 
or  coal  tar.  A  burner  is  not  worthy  of  considera- 
tion unless  it  enables  the  operator  to  burn  any 
gravity  of  liquid  fuel,  for  no  manufacturer  should 
be  limited  to  the  purchase  of  one  particular  kind 
of  fuel.  There  should  be  no  internal  tubes,  needle 
points  or  other  mechanism  which  will  clog,  wear 
away,  or  get  out  of  order  readily.  Each  burner 
should  be  thoroughly  tested,  so  that  when  it  leaves 
the  shop  where  it  is  made,  the  manufacturer  knows 
that  it  will  fill  the  requirements  for  which  it  is 
being  furnished.  With  high  pressure  air  or  steam 
as  atomizer  a  burner,  having  the  oil  orifice  below 
the  atomizer  orifice  and  independent  of  same,  is 
preferable  because  there  can  be  then  no  liability 
of  the  fuel  solidifying  or  carbonizing  over  the 
atomizer  slot  at  the  nose  of  the  burner. 


ATOMIZATION 


•23 


AIR  OR 
DRY  STEAM 


OIL  OR  TAR 
Fig.  i.     High    Pressure    Oil    Burner. 

As  the  fuel  passes  out  perpendicularly,  it  is  struck  by  the 
atomizer  coming  out  horizontally  and  atomized  so  thoroughly 
that  each  drop  of  fuel  is  dashed  into  10,000  molecules  and  looks 
like  a  spray  or  fine  mist. 

The  first  time  a  burner  is  operated  there  is  usually  some 
difficulty  because  of  red  lead,  sand,  scale  or  small  particles  of 
solid  matter  being  in  the  pipes.  As  the  fuel  orifice  is  large,  any- 
thing in  that  line  of  pipe  is  readily  expelled  but  as  the  atomizer 
orifice  is  very  small  (ordinarily  only  1-32  of  an  inch  in  height), 
a  hinged  lip  is  provided  so  that  by  slackening  a  set  screw  and 
turning  on  the  atomizer,  the  lip  is  raised  and  the  foreign  sub- 
stance blown  out. 

This  burner  can  be  filed  to  throw  either  a  long  narrow 
flame,  or  a  fan  shaped  blaze  9  ft.  wide. 


24  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID   FUEL 

Considering  that  air  contains  20.7  parts  oxy- 
gen and  79.3  parts  nitrogen,  at  62  deg.  Fahr.  1  Ib. 
of  air  occupies  13.141  cu.  ft.  At  100  deg.  Fahr. 
this  air  occupies  14.096  cu.  ft.  Theoretically  it 
requires  13y2  to  14y2  Ibs.  of  air  to  effect  the  per- 
fect combustion  of  1  Ib.  of  oil.  Allowing  14  Ibs. 
at  62  deg.  Fahr.  it  would  require  183.97  cu.  ft.  of 
air  to  effect  perfect  combustion  of  1  Ib.  of  oil  or 
at  100  deg.  Fahr.  it  would  require  197.34  cu.  ft. 
of  air.  Practically  it  requires  from  17y2  to  19y2 
Ibs.  of  air  to  effect  perfect  combustion  of  1  Ib. 
of  oil.  Allowing  19  Ibs.  at  62  deg.  Fahr.  this  air 
occupies  249.68  cu.  ft.  or  at  100  deg.  Fahr.  it  oc- 
cupies 267.82  cu.  ft.  Allowing  1  gal.  of  oil  to  weight 
7y2  Ibs.,  practically  it  requires  142y2  Ibs.  of  air  to 
effect  the  perfect  combustion  of  1  gal.  of  oil  or 
18726/7  cu.  ft.  of  air  at  62  deg.  Fahr.  or  at  100  deg. 
Fahr.  it  will  require  2009y4  cu.  ft.  It  is  therefore 
essential  that  liquid  fuel  be  thoroughly  atomized 
so  that  the  oxygen  of  the  air  can  freely  unite  with 
it.  Except  where  mechanical  burners  are  used, 
the  fuel  is  atomized  by  means  of  high  or  low  pres- 
sure air  or  steam.  Compressed  air  or  steam  is 
preferable  to  low  pressure  air  because  it  requires 
power  to  thoroughly  atomize  liquid  fuel.  With 
low  pressure  or  volume  air,  you  are  limited  to  the 
use  of  light  oils,  whereas  with  compressed  air  or 
steam  as  atomizer,  you  can  use  any  gravity  of 


ATOMIZATION 


Fig.  2.     Low    Pressure    or   Volume    Air    Burner   with 
Oil  Regulating  Cock. 

The  construction  of  this  burner  is  such  that  the  air  supply  is  regu- 
lated at  the  mouth  of  the  burner;  thus  you  get  the  benefit  of  the  full 
impact  of  the  air  against  the  fuel  at  the  mouth  of  the  burner. 

The   oil    flows    downwardly    through    the    sheet    of   air. 
Low  oil  pressure  can  be  used  and  is  preferable. 

There  are  no  internal  tubes,  needle  points  or  other  mechanism  to 
wear  out,  clog,  carbonize  or  get  out  of  order. 

Used  only  with   light  crude  oil  or  fuel  oil. 


26  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID    FUEL 

crude  oil,  fuel  oil,  kerosene  or  tar  which  will  flow 
through  a  i/2"  PJpe.  For  stationary  boilers,  steam 
at  boiler  pressure  is  ordinarily  used  to  atomize 
the  fuel.  In  furnaces  the  most  economical  method 
of  operation  is  the  use  of  a  small  quantity  of  com- 
pressed air  or  dry  steam  through  the  burner  to 
atomize  the  fuel,  while  the  balance  of  the  air  nec- 
essary for  perfect  combustion  is  supplied  inde- 
pendently through  a  volume  air  nozzle  at  from  3 
to  5  oz.  pressure.  Every  particle  of  moisture  which 
enters  a  furnace  must  be  counteracted  by  the 
fuel  and  it  is  therefore  essential,  if  steam  is  used 
as  atomizer,  that  it  be  as  dry  as  possible.  It  is 
folly  to  attempt  to  use  steam  as  atomizer  on  a 
small  furnace  especially  if  the  equipment  is  loca- 
ted some  distance  from  the  boiler  room,  for  oil 
and  hot  water  do  not  mix  advantageously.  Nu- 
merous tests  have  proven  that  with  steam  at  80 
Ibs.  pressure  and  air  at  80  Ibs.  pressure,  by  using 
air  there  is  a  saving  of  12%  in  fuel  over  steam,  but 
of  this  12%  it  costs  8%  to  compress  the  air  (this 
includes  interest  on  money  invested  in  the  neces- 
sary apparatus  to  compress  the  air,  repairs,  etc.), 
so  there  is  therefore  a  total  net  saving  of  4%  in 
favor  of  compressed  air. 

As  the  use  of  steam  means  a  waste  of  fresh 
water  (which  is  a  very  scarce  article  on  sea-going 


ATOMIZATION  27 

vessels),  mechanical  burners  are  attractive  for 
marine  service  and  many  vessels  have  recently 
been  equipped  with  them.  With  many  of  these 
burners  you  are,  however,  limited  to  very  light 
crude  or  fuel  oil  and  there  has  been  considerable 
difficulty  experienced  in  preventing  the  parafine 
or  asphaltum  base  of  the  fuel  from  clogging  the 
delicate  mechanism  of  the  burner.  The  grade 
of  oil  required  for  the  average  mechanical  burner 
can  not  be  obtained  in  every  country  and  as  that 
capable  of  being  refined,  is  being  so  largely  dis- 
tilled in  order  to  obtain  the  more  volatile  and 
valuable  oils,  the  supply  of  this  light  oil  is  very 
limited.  A  centrifugal  air  compressor  operated 
by  a  modern  type  of  turbine  engine  (fig.  4,  page 
40),  has  been  developed,  which,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  writer,  will  attract  a  great  deal  of  attention 
from  marine  engineers  because  with  this  system 
any  gravity  of  liquid  fuel  procurable  in  any  sec- 
tion of  the  world  is  thoroughly  atomized,  perfect 
combustion  is  effected,  and  as  the  system  is  pro- 
vided with  condensers,  there  is  no  appreciable 
waste  of  fresh  water.  This  apparatus  is  light,  com- 
pact, durable,  and  efficient,  and  furthermore, 
high  pressure  is  not  required  on  the  fuel.  20  Ibs. 
air  pressure  is  carried  with  this  system  to  atomize 
the  fuel. 


28  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID   FUEL 


Fig.   3.     Mechanical    Burner. 

This  type  of  burner  is  particularly  adapted  for  marine  service 
to  prevent  waste  of  water  or  in  works  where  steam  or  compressed 
air  are  not  available. 

It  is  necessary  to  use  from  80  to  400  Ibs.  pressure  on  the 'oil 
supply  line  to  the  burners,  this  varying,  of  course,  with  the  gravity 
of  fuel.  The  oil  used  through  this  burner  should  be  heated  to 
just  below  the  vaporizing  point.  The  internal  construction  is 
such  that  the  fuel  is  atomized  while  passing  through  the  body  of 
the  burner  and  out  of  the  nose. 


ATOMIZATION 


29 


Fig.  4.  Burner  for  natural  or  commercial  gas.  Can  be  made  to 
produce  a  long  narrow  flame  or  a  fan  shaped  blaze  according  to 
requirements.  Operated  with  either  volume  or  compressed  air. 


Fig.  5.  A  flat  flame  pulverized  coal  burner.  The  flame  can  be 
supplied  to  any  width  of  furnace  desired.  The  apparatus  is  simple 
to  operate  and  has  no  intricate  working  parts. 


CHAPTER   III. 

OIL  SYSTEMS. 

The  method  or  manner  whereby  liquid  fuel 
is  supplied  to  the  burners  is  commonly  called  the 
"oil  system."  Requirements  vary  according  to 
the  type  of  the  installation  and  the  fuel  burned, 
but  any  one  who  has  burned  oil  for  a  short  time 
appreciates  that  the  designing  of  an  oil  system  is 
quite  an  engineering  feat  for  so  much  of  the  suc- 
cess of  the  equipment  depends  upon  the  oil  sys- 
tem. Perfect  combustion  is  C02,  imperfect  is 
CO.  If  you  have  one  moment  carbon  dioxide 
and  the  next  moment  carbon  monoxide,  you  can 
readily  see  the  fuel  is  not  scientifically  consumed 
and  this  results  in  irreparable  loss  in  time  and 
fuel.  The  air  pressure  should  be  constant  and  the 
fuel  should  flow  to  the  burner  under  a  constant 
steady  pressure,  no  matter  whether  that  pressure 
be  1  lb.,  20  Ibs.  or  more  to  the  square  inch.  Light 
oils,  which  vaporize  at  about  130  deg.  Fahr.,  need 
not  be  heated  but  heavy  oil  or  tar  must  be  heated 
sufficiently  to  reduce  the  viscosity  so  that  it  will 
flow  readily.  This  is  ordinarily  done  by  means 
of  steam  coils.  Care,  however,  must  be  taken  not 


OIL  SYSTEMS 


Of    TH£K*OM&r£R 
SUPPLY     /*lf£ 


*^      F#OM       f9  °  TC    Z60  ° 


O/i.    SUPPLY     A»/f//V 


OH 


A7/9//V 


Fig.   i.     Above    cut    illustrates    manner    of    placing    thermometers    on 
main  oil  supply  lines  or  on  oil  supply  pipe  to  burner. 

It  is  highly  important  to  never  guess  at  the  temperature  when 
heating  heavy  oils  or  tars.  These  fuels  must  be  heated  to  just  below 
the  vaporizing  point,  and  no  one  can  intelligently  guess  at  this  temper- 
ature. Thermometers  should  be  placed  at  various  points  throughout 
the  works,  and  one  should  be  conveniently  placed  for  the  man  who  is 
responsible  for  keeping  the  proper  temperature  upon  the  fuel. 


32  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID   FUEL 

to  get  the  fuel  too  hot,  for  if  it  vaporizes  you  can 
not  pump  it.  The  vaporizing  point  of  the  various 
fuels  has  already  been  given  in  this  volume,  and 
as  steam  at  100  Ibs.  pressure  is  338  deg.  Fahr.  you 
can  readily  see  that  it  is  possible  to  heat  the  fuel 
above  the  vaporizing  point.  In  laying  the  piping 
care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  oil  supply  pipes 
below  the  level  of  the  burner  in  order  to  prevent 
the  formation  of  vapor  pockets,  which  are  liable 
to  entirely  shut  off  the  flow  of  fuel.  All  pipe  fit- 
tings should  be  malleable  iron.  All  unions  on 
pipe  lines  must  be  either  ground  joint  or  flange 
unions  with  lead  gaskets.  Rubber  gaskets  can 
not  be  used  because  liquid  fuel  soon  disintegrates 
the  rubber.  The  use  of  a  paste  of  litharge  and 
glycerine  on  all  pipe  joints  will  prevent  their  leak- 
ing. It  is  essential  to  place  a  strainer  made  of 
wire  netting  in  the  tank  to  prevent  lamp  black 
or  other  foreign  substances  from  getting  into  the 
pipes  and  valves  and  clogging  them. 

No  sane  person  to-day  would  venture  near 
a  storage  tank  with  a  lighted  pipe,  cigar,  torch  or 
any  light,  other  than  electricity,  but  in  or- 
der to  prevent  conflagration  and  serious  loss  of 
property  through  a  steel  storage  tank  being 
struck  by  lightning,  or  getting  on  fire  through 
some  accident,  it  is  wise  to  run  a  large  steam 


OIL  SYSTEMS  33 

pipe  line  from  the  boiler  room  into  the  top  of  the 
tank.  There  should  be  a  large  number  of  holes 
in  the  pipe  in  the  tank  so  that  when  the  steam 
valve  in  or  near  the  boiler  room  is  opened,  the 
steam  will  be  widely  diffused  over  the  fuel  in  the 
tank. 

Of  course,  the  most  simple  system  is  that  of- 
ten used  in  gas  works,  mines  and  other  places, 
where  there  are  no  insurance  regulations  or  city 
ordinances  to  prevent  one  from  placing  the  tank 
so  that  the  fuel  will  flow  by  gravity,  the  supply 
being  controlled  by  the  necessary  valves.  The 
bottom  of  the  oil  tank  is  ordinarily  placed  from 
four  to  six  feet  above  the  level  of  the  burners 
but  in  gas  houses  often  the  tank  is  placed  on  top 
of  the  boiler  so  that  the  heat  in  the  boiler  room 
will  heat  the  fuel  sufficiently  to  reduce  its  vis- 
cosity. 

Fig.  2  shows  an  oil  supply  system  which  con- 
forms with  the  Underwriters'  requirements  and 
which  is  used  in  hundreds  of  plants.  The  storage 
tank,  placed  at  some  distance  from  any  building, 

is  covered  with  two  feet  of  earth.  As  the  average 
oil  tank  car  contains  about  6000  gal.  I  always  rec- 
ommend oil  storage  capacity  of  10,000  gals,  if 
the  plant  is  on  a  railroad  siding.  Either  one  large 
tank  or  small  ones  coupled  together  as  shown 


OIL  SYSTEMS  35 

may  be  used.  A  reciprocating  pump  is  preferable. 
I  never  advocate  a  rotary  pump  except  when 
nothing  but  light  oils  will  be  used  and  even  then 
a  rotary  pump  has  a  tendency  to  churn  the  fuel 
into  a  foam,  thereby  causing  slight  but  noticeable 
explosions  in  the  fire-box  or  furnace.  By  means 
of  the  pump,  pulsometer  and  a  pressure  release 
valve  (set  at  12  Ibs.  pressure),  with  this  system 
12  Ibs.  pressure  is  constantly  maintained  on  the 
main  oil  supply  line  whether  one  or  a  dozen  burn- 
ers are  in  operation.  While  light  oil  which  vapor- 
izes at  about  130  deg.  Fahr.  does  not  need  to  be 
heated,  oil  of  16  gravity  Baume  is  first  heated  by 
means  of  a  steam  coil  in  the  storage  tank  and  then 
by  the  exhaust  from  the  pump  so  that  after  pass- 
ing through  this  heater,  it  is  fed  to  the  burner  at 
just  below  the  vaporizing  point. 

As  the  base  and  residium  of  very  heavy  oil, 
oil  tar  or  coal  tar  has  a  tendency  to  clog  the  pres- 
sure valve  used  in  the  above  system  and  render 
it  worthless,  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  install 
a  "valveless  system"  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig. 
3.  In  this  case  that  portion  of  the  oil  pumped 
which  is  not  used  by  the  burners,  flows  into  a 
column  or  stand-pipe  of  sufficient  height  to  give 
six  or  eight  Ibs.  pressure  on  the  oil  line,  and  then 
back  again  to  the  storage  tank.  With  this  arrange- 


OIL -SYSTEMS  37 

ment  there  can  be  no  fluctuation  in  the  oil  pres- 
sure. Should  the  fuel  be  accidentally  heated  at 
any  time  above  the  vaporizing  point,  you  will 
note  that  this  vapor  can  readily  pass  out  of  the 
top  of  the  standpipe  through  a  vent  pipe  extend- 
ing above  the  roof  of  the  building  and  ten  feet 
from  any  smoke  stack. 

In  Fig.  4  is  shown  oil  system  used  for  heating 
hotels,  office  buildings,  etc.  An  electric  motor 
operates  an  air  compressor  which  supplies  air  to 
force  the  fuel  from  the  storage  tank  to  burner  and 
also  the  air  required  through  the  burner  to  atom- 
ize the  fuel.  This  system  is  absolutely  reliable 
for  should  a  fuse  burn  out,  the  oil  and  air  supply 
to  burner  are  stopped  simultaneously.  Or  an  oil 
or  gas  engine  may  be  used  and  the  compressor 
operated  by  a  counter-shaft.  In  this  case  should 
the  engine  stop  or  belt  break,  the  compressor 
will  at  once  cease  to  force  the  fuel  to  the  burner. 
Both  these  systems  are  simple,  safe  and  sane. 

For  marine  service,  where  the  prevention  of 
the  waste  of  fresh  water  requires  careful  consider- 
ation, a  turbine  engine  with  condenser  may  be 
used  to  operate  the  oil  pump  and  a  compressor 
of  adequate  size  to  furnish  air  at  sufficient  pres- 
sure to  atomize  the  gravity  of  oil  obtainable  in 
any  port  and  to  distribute  the  heat  in  the  fire-box, 
also  the  additional  air  required  in  the  boiler  room. 


THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID    FUEL 


Fig.  4.     Compressed   Air   System. 
Adequate    for   light   crude   oil   or   fuel   oil   only. 


OIL  SYSTEMS  39 

This  system  as  shown  in  Fig.  5  is  very  compact, 
efficient  and  economical.  While  oil  used  exclu- 
sively as  fuel  cannot  compete  with  the  price  of 
coal  in  many  localities,  it  is  very  necessary  to  use 
it  to  aid  the  coal  fire  while  carrying  peak  loads. 

To  effect  the  strictest  economy,  crude  oil  or 
tar  must  always  be  heated  to  just  below  the  vapor- 
izing point.  With  the  heavy  oil,  such  as  is  pro- 
duced in  Mexico,  it  is  sometimes  advantageous 
to  use  an  oil  superheater  so  that,  as  for  instance 
on  a  locomotive,  if  the  oil  is  not  heated  sufficient- 
ly in  the  storage  tank  of  tender  or  if  the  tank  has 
just  been  refilled  at  the  end  of  a  division,  by  pass- 
ing through  a  superheater  just  before  it  reaches 
the  oil  regulating  cock,  it  will  be  fed  to  the  burn- 
er at  just  below  the  vaporizing  point.  (See  Fig. 
6,  page  53).  When  burning  heavy  oil  in  furnaces, 
if  the  fuel  must  come  considerable  distance,  it  is 
often  essential  to  preheat  it  near  the  burner  even 
if  there  is  a  steam  heater  pipe  immediately  under 
the  oil  supply  line  from  the  storage  tank.  A  su- 
perheater is  also  valuable  for  heating  tar  between 
the  storage  tank  and  the  burner  so  that  it  will  be 
of  such  consistency  that  it  can  be  readily  atom- 
ized. 

When  an  ordinary  globe  valve  is  used  to  reg- 
ulate   the    fuel    supply,  and  the  valve  is  partly 


OIL  SYSTEMS  41 

closed,  the  small  opening  between  the  valve  pro- 
per and  the  seat  acts  as  a  strainer  and  any  resi- 
duum or  foreign  substances  in  the  oil  finally 
closes  the  opening  and  cuts  off  the  supply.  We 
have  here  shown  an  oil  regulating  cock  provided 
with  a  V-shaped,  knife-edged,  opening  in  the 
plug,  which  not  only  has  a  shearing  action  on 
heavy  liquid  fuels,  but  enables  the  operator  to 
secure  the  finest  possible  adjustment.  It  is  unne- 
cessary to  make  comparison  between  this  cock 
and  an  ordinary  globe  valve  or  plug  cock  to  any 
intelligent  man  who  has  had  experience  in  hand- 
ling liquid  fuel.  When  a  furnace  is  working  con- 
tinuously on  one  class  of  work,  this  cock  can  be 
set  by  the  adjusting  screw  so  that  when  the  burn- 
er is  stopped  for  noon  hour,  or  at  night,  it  can  be 
returned  to  the  same  adjustment  when  again 
started. 


Fig.  6.     Oil   Regulating   Cock. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

0 

REFRACTORY  MATERIAL. 

Poor  fire-brick  should  never  be  used  as  it  is 
most  disappointing  both  to  the  builder  and  owner 
of  the  furnace.  It  takes  as  much  time  and  labor 
to  construct  a  furnace  of  poor  fire-brick  as  of 
good  brick.  Poor  brick  is  dear  at  any  price,  no 
matter  what  may  be  the  fuel  used. 

The  excessive  heat  which  can  be  obtained 
from  liquid  fuel,  makes  it  necessary  in  many  in- 
stances to  use  a  very  superior  grade  of  fire-brick. 
For  example,  in  welding  furnaces  the  lining 
should  be  capable  of  withstanding  3,000  deg. 
Fahr.  without  dripping  or  melting  away,  while 
in  crucible  melting  furnaces  the  fire-brick  must 
be  capable  of  withstanding  the  high  temperature 
required  to  melt  fourteen  pots  of  crucible  steel  at 
one  heat.  These  bricks  must  be  non-expanding 
for  if  they  were  to  expand  in  the  same  proportion 
as  silica  brick,  the  furnace  lining  would  become 
six  inches  too  long;  which  amount  of  expansion 
would  ruin  the  construction  of  the  furnace.  The 
analysis  of  brick  for  crucible  furnaces  is  as  follows: 

Silica 56.15  % 

Alumina  .  .  33.295% 


REFRACTORY  MATERIAL  43 

Peroxide  Iron 0.59  % 

Lime 0.17  % 

Magnesia 0.115% 

Water  and  inorganic  matter  9.68  % 

In  open  hearth  furnaces  a  silica  brick  is  es- 
sential because  it  will  withstand  the  required  high 
temperature  and  as  these  furnaces  are  operated 
continually,  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  this 
brick  has  not  the  detrimental  effect  in  this  class 
of  service  which  it  has  in  a  furnace  which  is  only 
operated  eight  or  ten  hours  daily.  In  annealing 
furnaces  owing  to  the  lower  temperature  required 
for  the  heat-treatment  of  metals,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  use  such  good  quality  of  brick.  It  is,  how- 
ever, essential  that  these  bricks  do  not  expand 
nor  contract.  It  is  also  very  necessary  that  the 
furnace  be  carefully  constructed  by  a  competent 
furnace  builder  for  the  bricks  should  not  be  laid  in 
layers  of  fire  clay  the  way  ordinary  red  bricks  are 
laid  with  mortar  but  should  simply  be  dipped  in 
very  liquid  fire  clay  solution,  and  then  laid  in 
place.  It  is  advisable  to  use  special  shaped  bricks 
for  lining  small  furnaces,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
it  does  not  require  a  skilled  mason  to  place  these 
blocks  in  position.  For  example,  two  blacksmith 
helpers  can  reline  a  furnace,  having  charging 
space  18-in.  wide,  22-in.  deep,  by  16-in.  high,  with 


44  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID    FUEL 


Furnace  with  front  casting  removed  to  show  special  shaped  brick  lining. 


REFRACTORY  MATERIAL  45 

13  large  accurately  shaped  blocks  in  forty  min- 
utes. As  these  shapes  are  interlocking  and  as  the 
number  of  the  joints  is  greatly  reduced,  this  lin- 
ing lasts  about  three  times  as  long  as  a  furnace 
lined  with  ordinary  standard  size  fire-brick.  This 
fully  demonstrates  the  theory  that  every  fire- 
brick joint  in  the  furnace  shortens  the  life  of  the 
construction. 

As  magnesite  brick  has  no  affinity  for  iron,  it 
is  often  used  for  furnace  bottom  in  welding  fur- 
naces, etc.  For  air  furnace  bottoms  a  special 
grade  of  sand  is  necessary,  the  analysis  of  which 
is  as  follows: 

Silica 89.94 

Oxide  of  Iron 2.64 

Oxide  of  Aluminum  3.26 

Magnesia trace 

Lime trace 

Total  Alkali 2.62 

Loss  on  ignition 1.50 


CHAPTER  V. 

LOCOMOTIVE    EQUIPMENT. 

Hundreds  of  locomotive  firemen  are  to-day 
rejoicing  because  of  the  discovery  of  liquid  fuel 
for  instead  of  their  runs  being  a  continuous  ardu- 
ous task  of  shoveling  coal,  they  are  riding  like  a 
prince  on  their  seat  in  the  cab,  gazing  out  of  the 
window  at  the  track  ahead,  safe-guarding  their 
own  lives  as  well  as  those  of  the  traveling  public 
in  the  train.  One  hand  rests  upon  the  lever  of  an 
oil  regulating  quadrant  by  means  of  which  they 
can  instantly  increase  or  decrease  the  flow  of  fuel 


Fig.  i.     Oil  Burner. 
Only  one   required   for  the   largest   locomotive. 

passing  into  the  fire-box.  When  a  locomotive  is 
changed  from  coal  to  oil,  its  tonnage  is  increased 
15%,  for  you  can  at  all  times  maintain  the  full 
boiler  pressure  of  steam.  Even  while  going  up  the 
highest  grade  or  mountain,  the  steam  pressure  in 
boiler  is  not  lowered  and  there  is  absolutely  no 
smoke.  As  there  are  no  smoke  or  sparks  emitted, 


LOCOMOTIVE   EQUIPMENT  47 

the  danger  of  setting  fire  to  forests,  bridges,  build- 
ings, etc.,  is  eliminated,  and  because  of  this  fact, 
oil  burning  locomotives  are  used  in  coal  mines, 
on  divisions  passing  through  timber  lands,  etc. 
Before  oil  was  introduced,  timber  of  inestimable 
value  was  destroyed  by  sparks  in  Louisiana,  the 
Adirondack  Mountains,  etc. 

Great  advances  have  been  made  in  the  equip- 
ment of  locomotives  but  the  types  are  so  numer- 
ous, it  is  difficult  to  specifically  describe  these 
changes.  Formerly  it  was  customary  to  bolt  the 
burner  to  the  mud  ring  below  the  fire-box  door, 
directing  the  flame  toward  the  flue  sheet  under 
an  arch  made  of  A-l  fire  brick.  This  arch  was  a 
source  of  great  difficulty  as  it  often  fell  or  wasted 
away,  thus  deflecting  the  heat  against  the  crown 
sheet.  Again  too,  often  if  the  flues  began  to  leak, 
the  water  dripping  down  upon  the  arch,  penetra- 
ted the  fire-brick,  thus  generating  steam  which 
caused  the  structure  to  crumble  and  fall.  The 
most  modern  practise  is  to  eliminate  the  arch  en- 
tirely, the  burner  being  placed  at  the  flue  sheet 
end  of  the  fire-box  substantially  as  shown  in  Fig. 
2.  This  insures  a  reverberatory  movement  of  the 
flame  and  heat  for  the  burner  directs  the  flame 
against  the  fire-brick  cross  wall  at  the  rear  of  the 
fire-box  where  it  is  deflected  and  drawn  forward 


48  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID    FUEL 


Fig.  2.     Most   modern    type    of   locomotive    equipment. 


LOCOMOTIVE   EQUIPMENT  49 

by  the  exhaust  to  the  flue  sheet  end  of  the  fire- 
box. The  grates,  of  course,  are  always  omitted. 
By  means  of  the  inverted  arch  with  dampered  air 
opening,  the  quantity  of  air  necessary  for  perfect 
combustion  is  regulated  according  to  require- 
ments. When  the  locomotive  is  going  forward,  the 
rear  damper  is  open,  and  while  the  locomotive  is 
going  backward  the  front  damper  is  open. 

I  show  but  one  type  of  inverted  arch,  but  will 
say  that  these  vary  in  construction.  Some  have 
damper  controlling  devices  by  which  the  fireman 
can  accurately  control  the  admission  of  air  pass- 
ing into  the  fire-box,  while  others  admit  the  air 
through  openings  in  the  burner  end  of  the  inver- 
ted arch.  A  fireman  who  uses  judgment  in  the 
operation  of  the  damper  type,  secures  the  highest 
economy  in  fuel  by  admitting  just  sufficient  air 
while  at  the  same  time  allowing  no  smoke  to  pass 
from  smokestack — in  other  words,  he  effects  per- 
fect combustion.  Careless  firemen  who  do  not 
use  good  judgment  in  controlling  the  damper, 
make  a  better  record  in  fuel  economy  by  the  use 
of  the  type  of  inverted  arch  with  air  openings  at 
the  burner  end.  Care  should  always  be  taken  not 
to  admit  a  superfluous  amount  of  air  into  the  fire- 
box, as  it  requires  additional  fuel  to  heat  excess 
quantity  air  to  the  temperature  of  the  fire-box. 


50  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID   FUEL 

The  fireman's  regulating  quadrant  takes  the 
place  of  the  coal  shovel  on  an  oil  burning  engine. 
The  early  history  of  liquid  fuel  equipment  shows 
that  many  locomotive  fire-boxes  were  ruined  be- 
cause the  fireman  inadvertently  shut  off  the  fuel 
supply  while  drifting  down  a  long  grade  or  com- 
ing into  a  station.  He  thought  he  had  a  light  fire, 
but  there  being  none,  the  cold  air,  rushing  in, 
damaged  the  fire-box  and  started  the  flues  to 


Fig.  3.     Fireman's    Regulating    Quadrant. 


Fig.  4.     Locomotive   Oil   Regulating   Cock. 

leaking.  This  difficulty  is  now  entirely  obviated 
by  the  use  of  a  quadrant  attached  by  means  of  a 
rod  to  an  oil  regulating  cock  (Fig.  4),  having  a 
V-shape  knife-edge  orifice  in  the  plug,  through 
which  the  fuel  enters  and  passing  out  through  a 
much  larger  orifice.  With  this  apparatus  you  can 


LOCOMOTIVE  EQUIPMENT 


Fig-  5-     Oil   tank  placed   in   former   coal   space   of   locomotive    tender. 


52  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 

have  the  pops  operate  going  up  the  steepest  grade 
on  any  mountain  if  so  desired,  or  you  can  hold 
the  steam  at  any  pressure  without  varying  5  Ibs. 
over  the  division  of  any  railroad.  While  drifting, 
the  lug  of  the  lever  or  handle  of  the  quadrant  en- 
gages with  a  set  screw  in  the  hinged  latch,  which 
insures  a  constant  light  fire  sufficient  to  maintain 
steam  pressure  and  operate  the  air  pump.  When 
speed  or  maximum  power  is  required,  the  lever 
is  moved  towards  the  left,  which  increases 
the  flow  of  oil.  When  the  engine  is  placed 
in  the  round  house,  the  hinged  latch  is  thrown 
back,  and  the  lever  is  moved  to  the  right  as  far  as 
possible  and  the  top  thumb  screw  tightened.  In 
this  position  the  lever  is  stationary  and  the  fuel 
supply  to  burner  entirely  shut  off. 

An  oil  tank,  such  as  can  be  placed  in  the  for- 
mer coal  space  of  the  locomotive  tender  to  supply 
fuel  over  a  division,  is  shown  in  Fig.  5.  This  tank 
can  readily  be  filled.  Means  are  provided  for  heat- 
ing the  oil  in  this  tank  substantially  as  shown;  also 
splash  plates  in  order  that  the  oil  may  be  carried 
in  this  tank  the  same  way  as  water  is  carried  in 
the  tender  tank.  The  bottom  of  the  tank  is  ordin- 
arily only  one  foot  above  the  burner,  but  with  the 
form  of  atomizer  shown  in  Fig.  1,  which  has  a  sy- 


LOCOMOTIVE   EQUIPMENT 


53 


Fig.  6 — Oil  Superheater 


54          THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID   FUEL 

phoning  action,  this  pressure  is  sufficient  so  that 
air  is  not  required  to  force  the  fuel  to  burner. 

When  heavy  oil  is  cold  and  viscous,  the  loco- 
motive can  not  pull  her  tonnage,  and  carbon  will 
lodge  on  the  fire-brick  lining  of  the  inverted  arch. 
Although  heated  by  steam  coils  in  the  storage 
tank  of  tender,  it  is  often  wise  to  have  heavy  vis- 
cous fuel  pass  through  a  superheater  just  before 
reaches  the  regulating  cock  so  that  it  will  get  to 
the  burner  heated  to  just  below  the  vaporizing 
point.  The  superheater  shown  in  Fig.  6  is  both 
simple  and  durable,  and  is  operated  by  a  globe 
valve  conveniently  placed  for  the  fireman,  which 
allows  the  steam  to  surround  the  oil  pipe,  all  con- 
densation passing  out  of  the  drain  cock  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  superheater.  Such  a  device  is  really 
a  necessity  when  the  oil  tank  has  been  filled  at 
the  end  of  a  division  for  it  takes  some  time  for  the 
cold  heavy  oil  to  become  sufficiently  heated  by 
the  steam  pipe  in  the  tank. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

STATIONARY  AND  MARINE  BOILERS. 

In  some  sections  of  the  country  where  oil  is 
cheap,  it  is  extensively  used  in  stationary  and  ma- 
rine boilers.  For  this  purpose  it  is  most  excellent, 
for  it  insures  perfect  combustion  and  a  constant 
even  fire,  whereas,  in  the  burning  of  coal  it  is  im- 
possible to  keep  up  an  even  heat  because  of  its 
being  necessary  to  so  frequently  replenish  the 
fuel  supply.  There  is  no  expense  for  the  handling 
of  fuel  and  ashes.  One  man  can  fire  and  water- 
tend  a  battery  of  twelve  oil-fired  boilers. 

In  traction  power  houses  where,  for  about 
three  hours  in  the  morning  and  three  hours  in  the 
evening,  it  is  necessary  to  develop  twice  as  much 
power  as  during  the  rest  of  the  day,  the  engineers 
with  oil  have  no  difficulty  in  developing  double 
the  normal  rated  horse-power  of  each  boiler  with- 
out injury  to  the  elements,  thus  entirely  obviating 
the  necessity  of  keeping  extra  boilers  with  banked 
fires.  In  some  plants  where  coal  is  ordinarily  used 
as  fuel  the  boilers  carry  the  peak  loads  by  using  a 
combination  of  oil  and  coal;  the  burners  being 
placed  in  side  of  fire-box  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  Oil 
is  used  in  some  power  plants  where  they  have  sto- 


56  THE   SCIENCE    OF   BURNING   LIQUID    FUEL 


High    Pressure    Oil    Buiner    iviuunted    for    Marine    or    Stationary 
Boilers  burning  oil  or  tar  exclusively  as  fuel. 

The  burner  is  connected  to  piping  of  sufficient  length  to  go 
through  the  front  setting  of  boiler. 

By  means  of  the  by-pass  valve  any  foreign  substances  that  may 
enter  the  oil  pipes  can  be  blown  out. 

The  atomizer  lip  is  hinged  and  held  tight  against  the  body  of 
the  burner  but  means  are  provided  for  raising  the  lip  to  blow 
out  the  atomizer  pipe  in  case  any  foreign  substance  such  as 
scale,  red  lead,  etc.,  should  lodge  therein.  This  can  be  quickly 
accomplished  without  removing  burner  from  boiler. 


STATIONARY  AND   MARINE   BOILERS 


57 


Fig.  2.     Boiler  equipped  for  the  use  of  oil  or  tar  to  aid  coal  or 
breeze  fire  in  carrying  peak  loads. 


58          THE  SCIENCE   OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 


Fig.  3.    Oil  or  Tar  Burner  mounted  with  swivel  joints. 


STATIONARY  AND    MARINE   BOILERS  59 

kers  and  where  a  boiler  is  called  into  service 
quickly.  In  this  case  the  oil  burner  is  mounted 
with  swivel  points  (see  Fig.  3),  and  when  called 
into  use,  it  is  simply  swung  from  its  position  at  the 
side  of  the  boiler  and  plays  its  fire  over  the  bed  of 
coal  until  the  green  coal  fire  has  been  properly 
ignited,  after  which  it  is  swung  out  of  position  and 
the  burner  opening  in  the  side  of  fire-box  is  closed 
by  fire-brick  of  the  exact  size  and  form  required  to 
fill  the  burner  opening. 

Another  service  of  great  importance  and  of 
growing  demand  is  in  large  electric  light  plants 
which  formerly  had  a  long  battery  of  boilers  car- 
rying banked  coal  fires,  for  during  a  storm  or 
threatening  weather,  many  lights  are  turned  on 
simultaneously  throughout  a  city,  thus  necessita- 
ting the  immediate  replenishing  of  electrical 
energy.  A  number  of  plants  have  been  changed 
to  oil  by  placing  the  burner  in  the  front  end  set- 
ting of  boiler,  the  grates  being  covered  with  a 
checker-work  of  fire-brick,  the  opening  in  the 
checker-work  being  of  such  proportions  as  to  ad- 
mit sufficient  oxygen  for  the  consuming  fuel.  A 
gas  pilot  light  is  constantly  kept  burning  and 
when  the  boilers  are  suddenly  called  into  service, 
the  oil  burner  is  started  in  five  seconds  by  simply 
opening  the  two  operating  valves  and  in  ten  min- 


60  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID   FUEL 

utes,  150  Ibs.  of  steam  is  on  the  boiler.  Of  course, 
when  not  under  fire,  hot  water  is  constantly  pass- 
ing through  these  boilers,  this  being  the  same 
practice  as  is  used  in  fire-engine  houses. 

With  the  average  fluctuating  load  in  station- 
ary boilers,  it  requires  approximately  147  gallons 
of  oil  having  calorific  value  of  19,000  B.  T.  U.  per 
Ib.  and  weighing  7.5  Ibs.  per  gal.  to  equal  one  long 
ton  of  bituminous  coal  (2240  Ibs.)  having  calorific 
value  of  14,200  B.  T.  U.  per  Ib. 

The  analysis  of  one  of  the  best  coals  is  as  fol- 
lows: 

Carbon   82.26% 

Hydrogen , 3.89% 

Oxygen  4.12% 

Nitrogen 64% 

Sulphur 49% 

Ash 8.60% 

Total   100      % 

Calorific  value  per  Ib.  15,391  B.  T.  U. 

However,  the  average  of  good  coals  has  a  cal- 
orific value  of  14,200  B.  T.  U.  per  Ib. 

There  are  many  types  of  stationary  boilers, 
ail  of  which  play  their  particular  part  in  the  manu- 
facturing world.  Along  the  lines  of  railroads  old 
locomotive  boilers,  discarded  from  railway  ser- 


STATIONARY   AND   MARINE   BOILERS  61 


Fig.   4.      Locomotive    Boiler   equipped    for    Stationary    Service. 


62  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID   FUEL 

vice,  are  often  used  in  water  pumping  stations. 
Oil  is  an  excellent  fuel  for  this  work,  for  the  fire- 
man can  adjust  the  burjier  and  have  plenty  of  time 
to  care  for  the  pumping  plant,  as  he  does  not  have 
to  regulate  the  burner  for  three  or  four  hours  at 
a  time,  but  of  course,  he  must  give  attention  to 
the  water  supply  for  the  boiler.  In  Fig.  4  is  shown 
the  manner  of  equipping  such  a  boiler. 

Fig.  5  shows  the  most  modern  method  of 
using  oil  in  marine  boilers.  Note  the  combustion 
chamber  and  its  construction.  This  refractory 
material  aids  combustion  and  insures  an  even  dis- 
tribution of  heat.  The  end  lap  seam  of  the  cor- 
rugated fire-box  should  be  protected  by  fire-brick 
and  also  the  shell  and  staybolt  heads  should  be 
protected  by  a  4l/2  inch  cross  wall  as  shown.  With 
this  equipment,  by  simply  raising  the  cast  iron 
manhole  door,  the  inspector  can  readily  examine 
the  boiler. 

In  a  Stirling  boiler  (Fig.  6),  the  grates  should 
be  lowered  and  the  burner  placed  between 
the  two  ash-pit  doors.  Unless  the  width  of  the 
fire-box  exceeds  7y2  ft.,  only  one  burner 
giving  a  fan-shaped  flame,  is  required.  Never 
remove  the  arch  or  arches  over  the  grates  for  these 
are  necessary  to  deflect  the  heat  to  and  through 
the  elements  of  the  boiler. 


STATIONARY   AND   MARINE   BOILERS 


Fig.  5.     Scotch    Marine    Boiler    Equipment. 


64  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID   FUEL 


Fig.    6.      Stirling    Boiler    Equipment. 


STATIONARY   AND   MARINE   BOILERS  65 

There  are  two  methods  of  equipping  a  Heine 
boiler.  One  is  known  as  the  Low  Setting  and  the 
other  the  High  Setting.  The  latter  is  simply  plac- 
ing a  burner  through  the  firing  door  as  shown-  in 
Fig.  7,  and  covering  the  grates  with  a  checker- 
work  of  fire-brick,  leaving  a  space  of  %  inch  be- 
tween the  bricks,  so  that  the  air  required  for  com- 
bustion can  readily  pass  up  there  through.  Care 
must  be  taken  to  have  the  proper  distance  be- 
tween the  flame  and  the  refractory  material  cov- 
ering the  grates.  I  have  experimented  a  great 
deal  in  order  to  ascertain  this  distance,  and  have 
found  that  with  a  burner  giving  a  fan-shaped 
flame  there  should  be  8  in.  between  the  nose  of 
burner  or  the  Line  of  Blaze  from  the  burner  and 
the  top  of  the  fire-brick  checker-work.  In  the 
"Low  Setting"  (Fig.  8)  the  grates  are  removed 
and  rows  of  support  brick  laid  in  the  ash-pit.  On 
these  the  checker-work  is  placed,  leaving  %  in. 
space  between  bricks  if  the  stack  is  high  or  a 
greater  distance  if  there  is  only  a  short  stack.  The 
"Low  Setting"  is  always  preferable  because  by 
removing  the  grates,  you  increase  the  size  of  the 
fire-box  thus  correspondingly  increasing  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  boiler.  With  the  "Low  Setting"  you 
get  practically  iy2  Ibs.  greater  evaporation  per 
Ib.  of  fuel  than  with  the  "High  Setting"  and  there 


66  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID   FUEL 


Fig.  7.     Equipment    of    Heine    Boiler — High    Setting. 


68  THE   SCIENCE    OF   BURNING   LIQUID    FUEL 

is  no  liability  of  the  elements  being  injured,  even 
when  forcing  boiler  far  beyond  its  normal  rated 
horse  power.  With  either  the  High  or  Low  Set- 
ting, the  bridge  wall  is  cut  down  level  with  the 
top  of  the  checker-work  so  that  the  heat  may  be 
even  throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  fire-box. 

In  our  early  attempts  to  equip  a  Babcock  & 
Wilcox  boiler,  we  covered  the  grates  with  a  check- 
er-work of  fire-brick,  placing  the  burner  in  the 
front  end  setting  and  directing  the  heat  rearward- 
ly.  Our  chief  difficulties  were  the  inadequate 
size  of  the  chamber  in  which  combustion  took 
place,  a  concentration  of  the  heat  at  the  rearward 
end  of  the  first  pass  and  an  insufficient  amount 
of  heat  at  the  header-end  of  the  boiler.  Finally 
we  removed  the  grates,  placing  the  fire-brick 
checker-work  on  rows  of  support  brick  laid  in  ash- 
pit, and  constructed  a  deflection  arch  or  ledge  to 
deflect  the  heat  forward,  as  shown  in  Fig.  9.  Fur- 
ther experimenting  revealed  the  fact  that  the  very 
best  results  are  obtained  by  having  a  distance  of 
3  ft.  between  the  base  line  of  the  setting  and  the 
floor  line,  and  constructing  the  deflection  cross 
wall  as  shown  in  Fig.  10.  It  may  seem  costly  to 
make  the  setting  so  low  but  this  cost  is  soon  offset 
by  the  economy  in  fuel  and  efficiency  effected 
because  of  your  getting  the  benefit  of  an  even 


STATIONARY  AND    MARINE   BOILERS  69 


Fig.  9.     Equipment    of    Babcock    &    Wilcox    or    Altman-Taylor    Boiler. 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID  FUEL 


Fig.  10.     Most  modern  and  efficient  manner  of  equipping  a  Babcock 
&  Wilcox  or  an  Altman-Taylor  Boiler. 


STATIONARY  AND   MARINE  BOILERS  71 

distribution  of  heat  throughout  the  first  pass  of 
the  boiler. 

A  return  tubular  boiler  may  be  equipped  by 
simply  placing  checker-work  on  the  grates  and 
cutting  the  bridgewall  down  level  therewith  as 
shown  in  Fig.  11  but  personally  I  recommend  the 
"Low  Setting,"  similar  to  that  described  under 
Heine  boiler,  see  Fig.  8. 

Admirable  results  are  obtained  from  Vertical 
Boilers  by  placing  the  burner  so  that  the  flame 
enters  the  fire-box  tangentially,  for  this  causes 
a  reverberatory  movement  of  the  flame  and  heat 
and  prevents  impingement  upon  any  of  the  ele- 
ments of  the  boiler.  To  start  the  boiler  shown  in 
Fig.  12,  when  cold  in  a  pumping  station  or  when 
used  as  an  auxiliary  boiler,  we  simply  break  up 
a  few  boxes  and  pass  them  in  through  the  fire- 
door  and  in  a  few  moments  ten  or  twelve  Ibs.  of 
steam  is  raised  on  this  small  boiler,  which  is  suffi- 
cient to  operate  the  oil  burner  on  this  boiler,  and 
this  boiler  in  turn  furnishes  steam  to  operate  the 
burners  of  a  large  battery  of  boilers. 

The  Steam  Engineering  Department  of  the 
United  States  Navy  in  1904  conducted  a  series  of 
tests  upon  a  water-tube  boiler  using  oil  as  fuel. 
The  Bureau  at  that  time  was  under  the  charge  of 


72  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 


Fig.   ii.     Return    Tubular    Boiler    Equipment.    "High    Setting. 


STATIONARY   AND   MARINE  BOILERS 


7J 


Fig.  12.     Tangential    Flame    Equipment    as    applied    to    Vertical    Boiler, 


74  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID   FUEL 

the  late  Rear-Admiral  George  W.  Melville,  and 
the  tests  were  conducted  by  a  competent  board 
of  efficient  naval  engineers,  viz.:  John  R.  Edwards, 
Commander  (now  Rear- Admiral),  U.  S.  Navy; 
W.  M.  Parks,  Lieutenant-Commander,  U.  S.  Navy; 
F.  H.  Bailey,  Lieutenant-Commander,  U.S.  Navy; 
and  Mr.  Harvey  D.  Williams  and  Mr.  Frank  Van 
Vleck,  two  oil  experts  who  served  the  Board  as 
secretaries.  These  gentlemen  faithfully  dis- 
charged their  duties  and  gave  to  the  United  States 
and,  in  fact  to  the  whole  world,  a  most  accurate 
and  exhaustive  report  on  the  burning  of  oil  in 
boilers  which  still  remains  the  highest  authority 
on  boiler  equipment  and  has  done  much  toward 
the  introduction  of  oil  in  the  manufacturing 
world  as  well  as  in  the  navies  and  merchant  ma- 
rine. We  owe  this  Board  a  debt  of  gratitude  for 
their  untiring  efforts  in  our  behalf. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

OVENS. 

In  steel  foundries  oil  is  especially  attractive 
for  large  mould  drying  ovens  because  of  the  fact 
that,  if  desired,  the  moulds  can  be  dried  50% 
quicker  and  more  thoroughly  than  by  the  use  of 
coal,  coke  or  gas.  I  can  almost  hear  my  reader, 
who  is  the  superintendent  of  a  steel  foun- 
dry and  who  has  never  used  oil  as  fuel 
on  his  mould  drying  ovens  say,  "I  ,do  not 
care  to  use  a  fuel  that  will  heat  so  quickly 
for  it  would  simply  ruin  the  moulds,"  but  my 
friend,  coal  or  coke  gives  a  localized  heat 
whereas  by  the  use  of  the  method  of  burning  oil 
shown  in  Fig.  1  an  absolutely  even  distribution 
of  heat  is  obtained  throughout  the  entire  oven 
which  in  this  case  is  44  ft.  long,  20  ft.  wide  and  12 
ft.  high  in  the  clear.  This  oven  is  operated  with 
only  one  burner.  In  the  combustion  chamber, 
which  runs  through  the  center  of  the  entire  length 
of  the  oven,  a  temperature  of  2000  deg.  Fahr.  is 
maintained  which  insures  your  securing  the  high- 
est possible  efficiency  from  the  fuel.  You  will 
note  also  that  the  combustion  chamber  has  heat 
ports  of  graduated  size  and  such  location  as  to  in- 


76          THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID   FUEL 


MINIM  MM  MM  MM  II  I  r-H+H-H  hH  I  H  -\\\ 


3- 


r 


^ 


•tcr,,*  »ra-f 


Fig.  i.     Oven  44  ft.  long,  20  ft.  wide  and  12  ft.  high  in  the  clear 
operated  with  one  burner. 


w 

+G 
c 

*o' 
g 
m 


** 

td 


/:'  ''• 
78  THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 


iff 


The  above  cut  illustrates  manner  of  equipping  an  ordinary  Core 
or  Mold  Drying  oven  in  which  coke  or  coal  has  heretofore  been 
used.  One  burner  is  placed  in  the  former  ashpit  of  each  fire 
box,  and  the  combustion  of  the  fuel  is  so  perfect  that  no  soot 
ever  settles  on  the  cores.  The  Controlling  Valves  and  Oil  Regulat- 
ing Cock,  you  will  note,  are  placed  in  positions  convenient  for  the 
operator.  As  the  operator  has  the  fire  under  perfect  control,  he 
can  dry  the  material  as  quickly  or  as  slowly  as  is  desired.  Liquid 
fuel  gives  a  more  penetrating  heat  than  coal  or  coke,  and  it  has 
been  found,  that,  if  desired,  as  many  cores  can  be  dried  in  twenty- 
five  minutes  as  in  three  hours  while  using  coal  as  fuel. 


OVENS  79 

sure  an  even  distribution  of  heat.  The  heat  ports 
at  the  farther  end  of  the  combustion  chamber  are 
smaller  than  those  at  the  burner  end.  These  open- 
ings must  be  carefully  figured  out  for  the  success 
or  failure  of  the  installation  depends  largely  upon 
these  ports.  The  vents  for  the  escape  of  moisture, 
also  the  consumed  and  inert  gases,  should  always 
be  located  in  the  oven  roof  or  arch.  Never  use 
the  old  stack  method.  Give  the  money  ordinarily 
spent  for  the  construction  of  a  stack  to  the  poor 
of  the  city  or  to  some  hospital  where  it  will  be  of 
some  service  to  humanity. 

The  same  form  of  construction  as  shown  in 
Fig.  1  may  be  used  under  long  battery  of  Millet 
ovens,  the  heat  ports  being  provided  with  dampers 
so  that  the  supply  of  heat  for  each  individual  oven 
may  be  controlled  according  to  requirements. 

Core  ovens  and  ovens  for  black  japanning  are 
equipped  in  like  manner,  but  for  all  light  colored 
japanning  the  muffle  type  of  oven  is  necessary  in 
order  to  prevent  products  of  combustion  from  dis- 
coloring the  charge. 

Enameling  ovens  are  of  various  types.  Us- 
ually the  muffle  oven  is  used,  but  if  not  of  this 
form,  the  oil  burner  is  operated  before  the  charge 
is  put  in  the  furnace.  That  is,  the  vessels  are 


80  THE   SCIENCE   OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 


Muffle  Furnace  for  Baking  Enamel,  Annealing,  etc. 


OVENS  Si 

charged  into  the  oven  after  it  has  been  brought 
to  the  required  temperature  and  the  burner  shut 
off.  After  this  charge  has  been  baked  the  required 
length  of  time,  it  is  removed  and  the  burner  light- 
ed so  as  to  heat  the  oven  for  the  next  charge. 

Guessing  at  the  temperature  of  a  core  or 
mold  drying  oven  is  simply  a  waste  of  time,  fuel 
and  material.  If  a  recording  pyrometer  is  a  neces- 
sity on  a  heat-treatment  furnace,  certainly  it  is 
equally  as  essential  to  use  a  recording  heat  guage 
on  the  ovens  so  that  the  actual  temperature  may 
be  a  matter  of  daily  record. 


82  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID    FUEL 


Oil    Burning    Equipment    as    Applied    to    Bread    Baking    Oven. 

The  bread,  etc.  is  evenly  baked  for  the  baker  can  always  regulate 
the  temperature  just  as  he  wishes.  No  smoke  or  odor  when  the  oil 
is  properly  handled. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

FURNACES. 

It  has  been  said  that  we  are  on  the  eve  of  a 
new  industrial    day  in  shop     practice.     Experts 
have  found  that  many  presumably  scientifically 
equipped  modern  shops  have  not  reached  70% 
efficiency  while  many,  many  plants  are  not  ope- 
rated above  30%  efficiency.    The  dividends  are, 
of  course,  no  larger  than  the  production  efficien- 
cy and  yet,  to  the  astonishment  of  the  efficiency 
engineers,  the   proprietors   or   officials   all  seem 
quite  satisfied  with  the  equipment  and  methods 
employed  as  well  as  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
output.    I  regret  to  have  to  further  add  that  my 
conclusion  after    examining  the    apparatus  and 
methods  employed  by  numerous  plants  in  the 
burning  of  liquid  fuel  is  that  the  average  plant 
does  not  reach  30%  efficiency.    Strange  as  it  may 
seem,  the  men  in  charge  will  point  with  pride  to 
a  furnace  modelled  after  that  used  by  Tubal-cain, 
who  according  to  the  Bible,  was  this  world's  first 
artificer  in  iron  and  brass.     One  can  but  smile 
as  he  listens  to  them  orate  about  an  equipment, 
which  they  consider  the  fruit  of  their  ingenious 
minds,  but  which  you  know  has  been  used  for 


84  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID   FUEL 

ages  and  is  costing  that  firm  their  reputation  in 
the  manufacturing  world.  It  is  similar  to  com- 
paring a  lathe  or  drill  press  made  thirty  years  ago 
with  our  modern  apparatus.  Modern  furnace 
construction  is  an  asset  which  spells  out  efficien- 
cy and  profit  while  an  antiquated  type  of  furnace, 
constructed  by  "rule  of  thumb"  is  a  disappoint- 
ment and  a  constant  source  of  expense. 

This  is  the  day  of  specialists.  If  your  eye  has 
been  injured,  you  consult  an  oculist.  If  an  opera- 
tion is  necessary,  the  most  skilled  surgeon  is  called 
in  and  not  the  old-time  family  doctor.  A  square 
box  has  its  place  in  the  world  but  even  when 
lined  with  A-l  fire-brick  it  does  not  make  a  mod- 
ern oil  furnace.  Each  and  every  furnace  should 
be  carefully  designed  and  constructed  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  shop  in  which  it  is  placed. 
As  liquid  fuel  always  contains  more  or  less  water, 
there  should  always  be  refractory  material  near 
the  burner,  heated  above  the  igniting  tempera- 
ture of  the  fuel  so  that  after  there  has  been  a  pock- 
et of  water,  the  heat  from  the  brick  will  at  once 
ignite  the  fuel  again  as  soon  as  it  leaves  the  bur- 
ner. Again,  too,  the  heat  from  the  refractory 
material  aids  combustion.  As  the  products  of 
combustion  occupy  more  space  than  the  fuel  and 
atomizer  did,  this  refractory  material  or  combus- 


FURNACES 


85 


Furnace  serving  two  Bolt  Headers.  (Note  absence  of  flame  from 
charging  openings).  A  furnace  of  this  type  is  often  placed  between 
a  bolt  header  and  a  rivet  making  machine.  In  either  case,  it  will 
serve  both  machines  to  the  limit  of  the  physical  endurance  of  the 
operators.  If  desired  for  rivet  heating  in  larger  quantities,  various 
sizes  can  be  heated  at  one  time. 


86  THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 

tion  chamber  should  flare,  and  be  proportionate 
to  the  size  of  the  furnace;  or  in  other  words,  of 
such  form  and  proportions  that  the  consuming 
fuel  can  unite  with  the  air  necessary  for  combus- 
tion before  it  reaches  the  charging  space  of  the 
furnace.  This  prevents  oxidization  of  the  metal 
while  being  heated.  Wherever  possible  only  one 
burner  should  be  used  but  the  flame  from  this 
burner  must  fit  the  combustion  chamber  and  tho- 
roughly fill  it  with  heat.  Oil  gives  a  rolling  flame 
and  therefore  the  arch  must  be  of  such  form  that 
the  flame  and  heat  will  reverberate  perfectly  upon 
the  charging  space  of  the  furnace.  In  many  plants 
the  arch  unfortunately  is  the  hottest  portion  of 
the  furnace,  but  in  a  scientifically  designed  weld- 
ing or  melting  furnace  where  the  flame  and  heat 
reverberate  perfectly,  you  can  remove  an  arch 
brick,  lay  it  in  the  charging  space  and  it  will  be 
melted  down  like  soap,  while  the  remaining  bricks 
in  the  arch  will  not  even  be  dripping.  I  never  rec- 
ommend the  use  of  a  stack  except  where  absolute- 
ly necessary  as  that  means  you  are  limited  by  cli- 
matic conditions  for  we  all  know  a  furnace  cou- 
pled to  a  stack  will  not  operate  as  well  on  a  stor- 
my or  hazy  day  as  when  the  sky  is  clear.  It  re- 
quires 2009  cu.  ft.  free  air  at  100  deg.  Fahr.  to 
effect  perfect  combustion  of  one  gallon  of  the 


FURNACES 


87 


A  large  coal-fired  forging  furnace  changed  to  oil  fuel  by  simply 
building  a  combustion  chamber  of  proper  form  and  proportions 
in  the  former  fire-box  and  placing  a  burner  at  the  end  of  this 
combustion  chamber.  With  this  slight  change  the  operator  has 
now  an  oil  furnace  wherein  the  fire  is  under  perfect  control  and 
from  which  he  obtains  a  maximum  quantity  of  output  of  superior 
quality. 

When  a  furnace  of  this  type  is  changed  from  coal  to  oil,  the 
operator  almost  invariably  wishes  to  operate  the  furnace  just 
the  same  as  when  burning  coal.  That  is,  by  having  an  abundance 
of  flame  (about  2  ft.  high)  passing  out  of  the  door  opening.  You 
might  thus  run  an  oil-fired  furnace  for  days  without  getting  a 
welding  heat,  but  when  the  oil  fire  is  regulated  so  that  only  a 
greenish  haze  about  6  in.  long  passes  out  of  the  door,  CO2  is  effected 
and  in  a  few  moments  in  the  interior  of  the  furnace  can  be  seen  a 
glow  which  insures  a  welding  heat,  thereby  giving  not  only  the 
highest  efficiency  from  the  fuel  but  also  the  greatest  output  from 
the  furnace. 


88  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID    FUEL 

average  liquid  fuel,  but  only  approximately  20% 
of  this  amount  is  oxygen,  while  the  balance  is 
inert  gases  which  unfortunately  must  be  heated 
to  the  temperature  of  the  furnace  and  expelled 
as  quickly  as  possible.  In  a  scientifically  designed 
furnace,  this  is  readily  done  by  the  aid  of  the  bur- 
ner. If  allowed  to  pocket  or  remain  stationary  in 
any  portion  of  the  furnace,  the  inert  gases  cause 
uneven  temperature.  If  these  essential  features 
are  all  carefully  considered,  the  operator  has  a  fur- 
nace in  which  he  can  at  all  times  attain  and  main- 
tain the  temperature  required,  the  heat  is  evenly 
distributed  throughout  the  entire  charging  space, 
and  the  fuel  consumption  reduced  to  the  mini- 
mum for  the  full  calorific  value  of  each  heat  unit 
is  utilized. 

In  the  heat-treatment  of  steel  we  must  re- 
member that  the  value  of  the  steel  depends  wholly 
upon  the  heat-treatment  which  it  receives.  Steel 
is  not  like  copper,  but  is  a  very  complex  artificial 
product.  In  its  annealed  state  a  piece  of  .90  car- 
bon tool  steel  is  composed  of  ferrite  and  pearlite, 
but  these  minerals  are  decomposed  when  heated 
to  certain  temperatures  and  others  formed.  For 
example,  in  heat-treating  this  tool  steel,  there  is 
no  perceptible  change  until  1360  Fahr.  is  reached: 
but  if  the  temperature  is  increased  to  1460,  ferrite 


FURNACES 


Indirect-fired  Furnace. 

The  fire  chamber  is  below  the  charging  chamber  and  there  are 
heat  ports  of  graduated  size  through  which  the  heat  is  evenly  dis- 
tributed and  as  the  currents  of  heat  are  constantly  revolving,  this 
insures  the  expulsion  of  all  consumed  and  inert  gases.  This  type  of 
furnace  is  particularly  adapted  for  annealing,  case-hardening  and 
tempering  for  by  optical  pyrometer  test  the  temperature  does  not 
vary  over  ten  degrees  Fahr.  in  any  portion  of  the  charging  space. 


90  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID    FUEL 


View  showing  how  the  heat  m  an  indirect-fired  furnace  passes 
from  the  heat  chamber  through  graduated  heat  ports  of  such  size 
and  location  that  the  temperature  is  absolutely  even  throughout 
the  entire  charging  space.  As  long  as  the  fuel  and  atomizer  supply 
remains  constant,  the  burner,  without  any  adjustment,  will  operate 
for  hours  without  the  slightest  variation  in  the  temperature  of  the 
charging  space.  This  type  of  furnace  is  used  for  all  classes  of  anneal- 
ing, case-hardening  and  tempering  where  the  metal  must  be  kept 
away  from  direct  flame. 


FURNACES 


91 


Double    Shell   Annealing   Furnace. 

The  two  ovens  are  heated  from  below,  and  the  perforated  cast 
iron  drums  are  revolved  by  power.  The  drums  are  rolled  out  on 
the  brackets  in  front  to  charge  or  empty  the  shells. 


92  THE   SCIENCE    OF   BURNING   LIQUID    FUEL 

and  pearlite  have  been  decomposed  and  marten- 
site  is  formed.  Quenching  at  this  point  preserves 
the  martensitic  condition  and  the  metal  is  hard 
and  brittle.  In  carbon  steel,  martensite  is  very  sen- 
sitive to  heat  and  decomposes  readily,  i.  e.,  if  the 
steel  is  heated  sufficiently,  martensite  disappears 
and  ferrite  and  pearlite  are  again  formed.  For 
every  variation  of  heat,  there  is  a  variation  in- the 
grain  of  the  metal.  This  steel  anneals  between 
1300  and  1350  deg.  Fahr. 

How  important  it  is  therefore  to  have  a  fur- 
nace of  such  construction  that  the  temperature 
in  any  portion  of  the  charging  space  does  not  vary 
more  than  10  deg.  Fahr. 

For  the  average  size  indirect-fired  furnace, 
only  one  burner  should  be  used,  but  for  a  furnace 
approximately  18  ft.  wide,  22  ft.  long  x  7  ft.  high, 
two  burners  are  required.  More  than  two  burners 
should  not  be  used  for  it  is  impossible  to  regulate 
a  larger  number  of  burners  so  as  to  have  the  heat 
as  evenly  distributed  throughout  the  entire 
length  and  width  of  the  furnace  as  it  should  be  in 
order  to  perfectly  heat-treat  the  metal.  If  this  is 
important  in  the  annealing  or  tempering  of  steel, 
it  is  equally  as  essential  in  the  case-hardening  of 
metals. 


•FURNACES 


93 


<$e<:r/ert  frr  f-f-e-c 


Csise  H/tRaenifis  &  tffifif#iM?e  fi/A 


Indirect-fired  Car  Annealing  Furnace  (18  ft.  x  22  ft.  x  7  ft.)  The 
end  walls  of  furnace  being  carried  on  the  cars,  it  is  a  very  simple 
matter  to  pull  them  in  or  out  of  the  furnace.  While  two  cars  are 
being  heat-treated,  others  are  being  charged. 


94  THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 


Overhead    Oil-fired    Car   Annealing    Furnace    operated    with    only 
one  burner. 


FURNACES  95 

An  indirect-fired  furnace  is  not  suitable  for 
the  heat-treatment  of  high  speed  alloy  steel  for 
this  requires  a  much  higher  temperature  than  car- 
bon steel.  As  the  temperature  should  be  above 
2000°  Fahr.,  I  recommend  a  direct-fired  furnace 
having  combustion  chamber  of  such  form  and  pro- 
portions as  to  insure  the  ignition  of  the  oxygen 
necessary  for  perfect  combustion  with  the  atom- 
ized fuel  before  it  reaches  the  furnace  proper, 
thereby  reducing  the  oxidization  of  the  metal  to 
the  minimum. 


96 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 


A — Oil  burner,    B — Oil  regulating  cock.     C — Air  pipe.     D — Oil  pipe. 
E — Deflection   blast   pipe.     F — Auxiliary   blast. 

Furnace  often  used  for  dressing  drills  and  other  high  speed  steel 
tools.  It  is  also  valuable  for  a  wide  range  of  forging  in  smith  shops, 
etc.  Placed  between  two  bolt  heaters,  a  furnace  of  this  type  with 
charging  opening  on  each  side,  will  serve  both  machines  to  the 
limit  of  the  men's  ability  to  handle  the  blanks.  A  furnace  with  two 
charging  openings  will  produce  double  the  output  of  the  same  size 
furnace  with  only  one  opening,  with  increase  in  oil  consumption 
of  less  than  30%. 


FURNACES 


97 


A — Oil  burner.     B — Oil  regulating  cock.     C — Oil  pipe     D — Air  pipe. 
E — Deflection  blast. 

Furnace  designed  for  dressing  and  tempering  high  speed  tools, 
(60  carbon  upwards),  such  as  lathe,  planer,  shaper,  slotters,  chisels, 
flats,  capes,  etc. 

Instead  of  the  blacksmith  heating  but  one  chisel  at  a  time  as  is 
the  case  while  using  a  coal  forge,  with  this  furnace  seven  chisels 
can  be  heated  at  once  without  injury  to  the  metal.  The  heat 
being  held  at  the  required  temperature  constantly,  a  much  superior 
tool  is  produced  than  could  possibly  be  made  by  the  use  of  coal  or 
coke.  A  forging  heat  can  be  obtained  eight  minutes  after  starting 
the  cold  furnace  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  speak  of  the  output  as 
that  is  up  to  the  endurance  of  the  man  operating  the  furnace.  There 
is  no  waste  of  fuel  while  the  furnace  is  not  in  use. 


98  THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID   FUEL 


7'x?'  ANHEAUNG    T  EM  PEKING  AND 

WITH    RtTARY    TABLE 


7  ft.  x  7  ft.  Annealing  Furnace  with  Rotary  Table. 

By  means  of  differential  gears  the  speed  of  the  table  is  regulated 
according  to  the  size  of  the  stock  being  heat-treated,  so  that  when 
the  table  has  made  one  revolution,  the  charge  is  ready  to  be  re- 
moved from  the  furnace. 


cr    2. 

C       P 


CL 
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P 

3       <-»• 
.      en 


§• 

•d 


H 


FURNACES 


101 


Fig.  i.  Semi-pit  Furnace  for  Annealing,  Case-hardening  or 
Heat-treating,  with  bung  arch  which  can  be  removed  with  a  crane 
or  by  air  hoist.  This  furnace,  operated  with  one  burner,  has 
charging  space  12  ft.  long,  5  ft.  wide  x  4  ft.  high. 


102 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 


For  the  annealing  or  heat-treatment  of  sheet  copper  or  brass  in 
rolling  mills,  it  is  essential  that  the  furnace  be  accurately  and 
evenly  heated,  and  for  this  purpose,  oil,  scientifically  applied,  is  a 
fuel  which  connot  be  surpassed.  In  a  furnace,  about  8  ft.  6  in.  wide 
by  30  ft.  long,  two  burners  should  be  installed,  while  for  a  smaller 
furnace  only  one  burner  is  required.  I  know  some  firms  have 
equipped  these  furnaces  by  installing  a  large  battery  of  burners, 
but  the  results  have  always  been  unsatisfactory  as  the  complicated 
operation  of  all  these  burners  is  simply  a  source  of  worry  to  the 
operator. 


FURNACES 


103 


PLATE    HEATING    FURNACE 

SPACE    4* wee   X9'o*«« 


Plate  Heating  Furnace,  charging  space  8  ft.  x  9  ft. 


io4          THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 


Plate    Heating   Furnace,   charging   space    18   ft.   x   30   ft. 
This   furnace,   equipped  with   only  one   burner,   shows  the   size   of 
furnace   which    can    be    successfully    operated   with    a    burner   which 
distributes  a  blanket  of  flame   evenly  throughout   the   entire   length 
and   width   of   the    furnace. 


In  some  places  it  is  advantageous  to  have  a  plate  heating  furnace 
in  which  plates  of  various  lengths  can  be  heated.  In  the  furnace 
shown  above  there  are  two  bag-walls.  That  is,  when  only  short 
heats  are  required,  the  first  burner  is  used.  For  longer  heats  the 
first  bag-wall  is  removed  and  two  burners  are  used.  For  full 
length  heats  both  bag-walls  are  removed  and  all  three  oil  burners 
are  operated. 


FURNACES 


105 


Lead,    Oil   or   Solution   Bath    Furnace. 


For  small  deep  pots  the  best  results  are  obtained  by  placing  the 
burner  tangentially  so  that  the  flame  and  heat  will  encircle  the  pot 
and  not  impinge  upon  any  portion  of  it.  For  larger  or  more  shal- 
low baths,  it  is  a  very  simple  matter  to  construct  a  combustion 
chamber  proportionate  to  the  size  of  the  bath,  but  care  must  be 
taken  to  have  the.  neat  ports  and  combustion  chamber  such  that 
the  temperature  in  any  portion  of  the  bath  will  not  vary  over 
twenty-five  deg.  Fahr.  Oil  is  ideal  for  this  class  of  service  for 
after  the  burner  has  once  been  adjusted,  the  bath  can  be  constantly 
kept  at  the  required  temperature. 


106      THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID   FUEL 


A  modern  flue  welding  furnace,  the  capacity  of  which  is  60  welds 
of  safe  ends  on  2-in.  or  2%-in.  locomotive  boiler  tubes  per  hour, 
while  with  a  coal  forge  16  flues  per  hour  is  considered  good  prac- 
tice. With  either  fuel  the  blacksmith  requires  two  helpers,  the  dif- 
ference being  that  with  coal  a  blacksmith  has  to  work  much  harder 
than  his  two  helpers  do,  for  he  must  keep  turning  the  flue  or  he 
will  burn  a  hole  in  it  and  he  must  constantly  be  putting  on  borax 
and  sand  or  other  welding  compounds,  whereas  in  this  modern  oil 
furnace  his  helpers  can  charge  and  remove  the  flues,  no  welding 
compounds  being  necessary.  Three  flues  (instead  of  only  one)  are 
charged  at  a  time.  Oil  welded  flues  are  not  water-tested  as  the  welds 
are  all  perfect,  there  being  no  corrosion  or  oxidation  of  the  metal. 
No  time  lost  while  waiting  to  renew  or  coke  the  fire.  58  gallons  of 
oil  are  equivalent  to  a  ton  of  good  bituminous  coal  in  this  class  of 
service.  When  a  smith,  who  all  his  life  has  been  using  coal  for  this 
class  of  work,  discovers  these  facts,  he  concludes  that  oil  is  the  mar- 
vel of  the  20th  century.  A  shop  still  using  coal  for  this  class  of  work 
is  hopelessly  behind  the  times  and  cannot  expect  to  compete  with 
its  more  modern  neighbors. 

Flue  welding  furnaces  are  usually  supplied  with  extra  slide  plates 
so  that  for  welding  larger  size  flues,  the  plates  with  the  small  open- 
ings can  be  removed,  the  plates  for  larger  size  flues  put  on  and  the 
openings  in  the  brickwork  cut  to  the  required  size.  In  handling 
6-in.  superheater  flues  ordinarily  only  tivo  flues  are  welded  at  a 
time. 


FURNACES 


107 


^  e;/  we  * 


S'M£  fa 


Fig.    2.      A    Pipe    Welding    Furnace    operated    with    one    burner 
and  used  for  welding  a  flange  on  20  in.  pipe,  for  van-stoning,  etc. 


108  THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 


A  small  furnace  which  is  used  for  a  wide  range  of  work  in  small 
shops.  For  instance,  in  many  plants  one  of  these  little  furnaces 
is  used  for  forging,  rivet  heating,  annealing,  hardening  dies,  dress- 
ing high  speed  steel  tools,  and  by  placing  a  muffle  in  the  charging 
space  it  is  used  as  a  muffle  annealing  and  tempering  furnace.  It 
heats  rivets  uniformly  and  on  2^/2  gallons  of  oil  per  hour  is  equal 
to  four  coal  forges,  the  maximum  capacity  being  eight  thousand 
34-in.  x  3-in.  rivets  per  day  (ten  hours). 

Either  compressed  air  or  dry  steam  can  be  used  to  atomize  the 
fuel.  The  burners  on  about  60%  of  these  furnaces  are  operated 
with  steam. 


109 


FURNACES 


A  self-contained  portable  outfit  with  20  gallon  oil  tank,  which 
can  readily  be  moved  around  from  place  to  place  and  which  is  used 
for  heating  8,000  ^-in.  x  3-in.  rivets  in  ten  hours,  as  well  as  for 
forging,  tool  dressing,  etc.  Very  convenient  for  small  work  in 
shops  not  equipped  with  the  regular  oil  system  as  well  as  for 
work  where  portable  outfit  is  necessary. 

Compressed  air  at  pneumatic  tool  pressure  is  used  to  operate 
this  outfit.  That  is,  the  full  pressure  is  used  through  the  burner  to 
atomize  the  fuel  and  distribute  the  heat,  and  through  the  deflection 
blast  in  front  of  the  charging  opening  to  deflect  the  heat  from  the 
operator  and  to  retain  it  in  the  furnace,  but  the  air  used  on  the 
tank  to  force  the  oil  to  the  burner  is  reduced  from  pneumatic  tool 
pressure  to  12  Ibs.  as  it  passes  through  a  pressure  reducing  valve. 
This  device  is  most  essential  to  prevent  excessive  pressure  on  the 
oil  tank  and  safe-guard  human  life. 


110  THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 


Drop  Forging  Furnace. 

The  man  or  firm  who  intends  to  continue  in  business  and  com- 
pete with  modern  methods  must  of  necessity  use  liquid  fuel  for 
the  manufacture  of  drop  forgings  as  with  this  can  be  produced  the 
maximum  quantity  of  output  of  superior  quality  in  minimum  time. 
Anyone  who  has  used  oil  as  fuel  quickly  notices  the  softness  of 
the  heat.  That  is,  oil  produces  a  penetrating  heat  so  that  the  metal 
is  thoroughly  heated  throughout  its  entirety,  while  that  heated  with 
coal,  coke  or  gas  is  subjected  to  an  abrasive  heat  so  that  the  out- 
side of  the  blank  or  forging  is  heated  much  hotter  than  the  center. 
Because  of  the  penetrating  heat  produced  by  liquid  fuel,  oil  heated 
blanks  and  forgings  are  forged  quicker,  with  less  power,  and  there 
is  also  a  saving  on  the  dies.  Furnaces  for  this  purpose  should  be 
of  such  design  that  the  heat  will  be  evenly  distributed  throughout 
the  charging  zone  and  a  proper  size  combustion  chamber  used  to 
reduce  the  oxidization  of  the  metal  to  the  minimum. 


FURNACES 


111 


D — Oil  pipe         E — Deflection  blast  pipe         F — Auxiliary  blast 

A  i2-in.  billet  (charged  into  this  furnace  after  it  has  been  shut 
down  over  night)  can  be  brought  to  a  forging  heat  in  45  minutes. 
A  lo-in.  square  ingot  or  billet  can  then  be  brought  to  a  forging 
heat  in  32  minutes.  This  furnace  is  used  for  annealing,  tempering, 
heating,  forging  and  welding  large  billets,  shafts,  etc.  As  there 
are  two  charging  openings  opposite  one  another,  heats  can  be 
taken  on  any  portion  of  long  shafts  or  billets.  In  many  plants 
this  furnace  is  operated  with  compressed  air  as  long  as  that  is 
available.  When  the  air  is  needed  for  pneumatic  tools,  etc.,  by 
simply  opening  a  by-pass  valve,  steam  at  boiler  pressure  is  used 
to  atomize  the  fuel.  Either  steam  or  volume  air  (at  from  3  to  5 
oz.  pressure)  is  used  through  the  deflection  blast  in  front  of  the 
charging  opening  to  deflect  the  heat  from  the  operator  and  retain 
it  in  the  furnace. 


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FURNACES 


113 


SECTION   AT  n-A 


Fig.  i.  A  Continuous  Billet  Heating  Furnace,  66  ft.  long,  10  ft. 
wide,  in  which  two  rows  of  12  in.  square  ingots  40  in.  long  are 
heated. 


114  THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 

Many  attempts  to  burn  liquid  fuel  in  Air  Fur- 
naces have  failed  because  of  the  operator  not 
being  able  to  melt  the  full  charge  or  to  get  the 
metal  as  hot  as  when  burning  coal.  Often  the 
charge  was  oxidized  to  such  extent  that  what 
metal  did  become  molten  was  practically  worth- 
less. Usually  a  number  of  burners,  each  giving 
a  round  flame,  have  been  placed  in  the  side  wall 
of  the  furnace,  and  as  the  number  of  burners  was 
increased  the  equipment  became  more  and  more 
intricate.  Something  had  to  take  the  blame  for 
the  wasted  time,  material  and  effort,  so  oil  was 
condemned  as  being  unworthy  of  further  consid- 
eration. 

As  oil  has  a  much  higher  calorific  value  than 
coal  the  natural  conclusion  is  that  it  ought  to  be 
able  to  melt  the  metal  in  a  much  shorter  period 
of  time.  Not  only  that,  but  it  should  also  be  able 
to  bring  the  metal  to  the  temperature  required 
for  even  the  smallest  castings.  It  can  do  both  if 
properly  applied,  and  furthermore,  the  quality 
of  the  metal  is  improved,  for  by  chemical  analy- 
sis and  numerous  tests,  it  has  been  found  that  the 
castings  contain  no  more  sulphur  than  the  metal 
did  when  charged  into  the  furnace,  and  the  ten- 
sile strength  is  consequently  greater  than  that  of 
metal  melted  by  coal  fire.  As  the  melter  has  the 
furnace  under  perfect  control,  the  heats  can  be 


116  THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 

taken  off  much  quicker  than  while  burning  coal, 
and  the  temperature  of  the  charge  while  being 
tapped  can  be  maintained  without  varying  more 
than  25  deg.  Fahr.  until  all  the  charge  has  been 
run  from  the  furnace.  The  operation  of  skimming 
is  materially  decreased — this  is  a  very  noticeable 
improvement  which  is  especially  appreciated  by 
the  melter.  The  high  calorific  value  of  oil  also 
enables  the  melter  to  estimate  within  a  few  min- 
utes as  to  the  exact  time  when  the  charge  will  be 
ready  to  tap,  which  is  a  great  contrast  to  con- 
ditions while  burning  coal  especially  in  rainy 
weather  when  climatic  conditions  are  unfavorable 
and  the  stack  draft  is  materially  affected. 

The  change  from  coal  to  oil  is  a  very  simple 
matter.  In  the  original  fire-box  I  construct  a  com- 
bustion chamber  of  such  form  and  proportions 
that  the  air  necessary  for  perfect  combustion  can 
unite  with  the  atomized  fuel  before  it  reaches  the 
furnace,  which  prevents  oxidization  of  the  charge. 
Also  this  chamber  causes  the  heat  to  be  deflected 
upon  the  entire  surface  of  the  bath.  In  the  end  of 
the  combustion  chamber  I  place  a  hydro-carbon 
burner  which  makes  a  fan-shaped  blaze,  filling  the 
entire  chamber  with  flame.  A  very  small  quantity 
of  compressed  air  is  used  through  the  burner  to 
atomize  the  fuel  and  distribute  the  heat,  while 


FURNACES  117 

the  balance  of  the  air  necessary  for  perfect  com- 
bustion is  supplied  at  from  3  to  6  oz.  pressure 
through  a  volume  air  nozzle. 

The  furnace  is  charged  in  the  usual  manner. 
The  burner  is  started  by  opening  the  air  valve, 
holding  a  piece  of  burning  waste  (which  has  been 
well  saturated  with  kerosene)  by  means  of  a  pair 
of  pick-up  tongs  under  the  burner  and  then  turn- 
ing on  the  oil.  The  operation  is  so  very  simple 
that  one  must  see  it  in  order  to  appreciate  that  you 
can  get  as  intense  heat  with  it  in  a  few  minutes  as 
from  burning  coal  for  several  hours. 

The  reduction  in  the  time  required  to  get  the 
charge  ready  for  tapping  is  not  the  only  point 
wherein  oil  is  more  economical  than  coal.  There 
is  no  handling  of  fuel  and  ashes  consequently  the 
services  of  the  fireman  and  coal  passers  are  dis- 
pensed with.  There  is  great  saving  in  floor  space, 
for  the  oil  tank  is  placed  underground  and  the 
former  coal  bins  used  for  other  purposes.  The 
fire-brick  lining  of  the  furnace  lasts  20%  longer 
than  with  coal.  Poor  castings  or  imperfect  ones 
caused  by  the  metal  being  cool  or  sluggish  are  ob- 
viated entirely,  for  with  liquid  fuel,  the  question 
is  not  "How  hot  can  you  make  the  metal,"  but 
"How  hot  do  you  wish  it."  All  these  items  should 


ii8          THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 

be  taken  into  consideration  when  comparing  the 
relative  costs  of  using  oil  and  coal  in  air  furnaces. 

During  years  of  close  observation,  I  have  par- 
ticularly noticed  one  point  in  this  class  of  service. 
It  is  this.  Using  the  combustion  chamber  herein 
described,  a  burner  giving  a  flame  to  fit  this  com- 
bustion chamber  and  admitting  volume  air 
through  an  air  nozzle  located  below  the  burner, 
insures  not  only  the  hottest  portion  of  the  fur- 
nace being  where  it  is  most  needed,  viz. :  the  bath 
or  charging  space,  but  also  the  elimination  of  the 
detrimental  effect  of  any  sulphur  which  may  be 
in  the  oil  or  tar.  This  is  accomplished  with  this 
construction  for  the  following  reason, — the  air  ad- 
mitted between  the  flame  and  the  bath  or  charge 
must  pass  through  the  atomized  consuming  fuel 
and  thus  the  sulphur  is  consumed  before  it  reaches 
the  furnace  proper.  The  gases  rising  therefrom 
being  lighter,  quickly  ascend  to  the  arch  of  the 
furnace.  If,  however,  the  air  is  admitted  around 
the  burner  or  above  the  burner,  and  no  combus- 
tion chamber  is  used,  the  sulphur  is  not  consumed 
in  the  manner  above  described,  but  is  absorbed 
by  the  metal. 

Strange  to  relate,  the  first  air  furnace  in  which 
oil  was  successfully  burned  was  located  on  the 
identical  spot  where  the  first  malleable  iron  was 
made  in  the  United  States  by  Seth  Boyden  at  28 
Orange  Street,  Newark,  New  Jersey. 


FURNACES 


119 


ATOM/Z/NG    VAL  VE 
OIL 


O/L  fi£GULAT/A/G 
COCK 


FAN  BLAST  NOZZLE- 


Proper  place  to  hold  torch  when  lighting  a  furnace  burner. 


120         THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID   FUEL 


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122 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 


A    10,000   Ibs.    bottom   pour   ladle    in    steel   foundry   heated   by  a 
furnace  which  can  be  swung    up      and      out    of    the    way   as    soon 
as  the  ladle  has  been  brought  to  the   temperature   required.     The 
cover  is  then  removed  and  the  ladle  placed  in  position  to  receive 
the  charge. 


FURNACES 


123 


I24          THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID  FUEL 


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126          THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 

A  copper  refining  furnace  must  be  so  equip- 
ped that  the  operator  has  the  fire  under  perfect 
control  at  all  times.  That  is,  at  times  a  reducing 
flame  is  necessary,  while  at  other  times  an  oxidiz- 
ing flame  is  required.  Only  one  burner  should 
be  used  in  a  125  ton  furnace  as  shown  in  accom- 
panying cut,  but  this  must  spread  a  blanket  of 
flame  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  bath  or  char- 
ging space,  which  in  this  case  is  14  ft.  wide  by  26 
ft.  long.  I  am  aware  that  attempts  have  been 
made  to  use  a  large  number  of  burners,  installed 
along  the  sides  of  the  furnace,  with  operating 
valves  for  each  burner,  but  the  operation  of  the 
furnace  under  these  conditions  was  so  complica- 
ted, the  operator  could  not  accurately  regulate 
the  flame  and  if  during  the  refining  process,  the 
metal  is  oxidized,  it  becomes  porous  and  when 
rolled  into  copper  wire,  the  porousness  ruins  the 
conductivity  of  the  wire.  With  the  one  burner  a 
small  quantity  of  superheated  steam  or  com- 
pressed air  is  used  to  atomize  the  fuel  and  distri- 
bute the  heat  in  the  furnace  but  by  far  the  greater 
portion  of  the  air  necessary  for  combustion  is 
admitted  through  the  volume  air  nozzle  under 
the  burner. 

At  the  end  of  the  furnace  you  will  note  the 


FURNACES 


127 


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128          THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 

door  used  during  the  refining  process  for  poleing 
the  charge  (agitating  the  molten  metal  with  a 
long  wooden  pole).  In  this  door  is  a  peep-hole 
through  which  the  burner  can  be  plainly  seen  at 
the  opposite  end  of  the  furnace  and  all  the  oper- 
ating valves  are  so  placed  that  the  operator,  while 
viewing  the  burner,  can  quickly  and  accurately 
adjust  the  air  and  oil  supply  according  to  the  re- 
quirements for  the  proper  treatment  of  the  metal. 


FURNACES 


129 


Fig.  i.  Crucible  melting  furnace  for  melting  brass,  copper  and 
other  alloys.  The  capacity  of  this  furnace  is  either  a  No.  60,  No- 
70  or  No.  80  crucible.  This  furnace  has  a  combustion  chamber  of 
such  form  and  proportions  that  the  tangential  flame  and  heat  en- 
circles the  crucible  and  is  evenly  distributed  without  any  cutting 
effect  upon  the  crucible.  The  air  necessary  for  perfect  combustion 
unites  with  the  consuming  fuel  in  the  combustion  chamber  before 
it  reaches  the  crucible;  thus  the  life  of  the  crucible  is  prolonged 
because  of  oxidization  being  reduced  to  the  minimum. 


130          THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 

For  a  number  of  years  oil  has  been  used  for 
the  melting  of  brass  and  kindred  alloys  but  unfor- 
tunately direct-fired  oil  furnaces  were  recom- 
mended for  this  purpose  which  resulted  in  the 
alloys,  which  melt  at  a  lower  temperature  than 
copper,  being  sacrificed,  thus  causing  an  irrepara- 
ble loss  in  metal,  to  say  nothing  of  the  attendant 
change  in  the  composition  of  the  metal.  It  was 
indeed  a  sad  day  when  crucible  furnaces  were 
discarded  for  the  direct-fired  oil  furnace,  but  now, 
thanks  to  the  ability  and  fighting  qualities  of 
young  metallurgists  in  (or  who  should  be  in) 
every  brass  foundry,  we  are  again  returning  to 
crucible  melting  furnaces.  In  Fig.  2  is  shown  a 
modern  crucible  brass  melting  furnace,  six  pot 
capacity.  You  will  note  that  the  furnace  is  rever- 
sible. That  is,  one  burner  is  in  operation  until 
the  metal  in  the  three  crucibles  in  the  first  cham- 
ber is  ready  to  pour,  and  during  this  time  the 
waste  gases  passing  in  through  the  second  cham- 
ber on  their  way  to  the  stack  have  preheated  the 
metal  in  the  second  chamber,  thus  using  the  waste 
gases  as  much  as  possible.  After  the  metal  in  the 
first  chamber  has  been  poured  and  the  crucibles 
refilled,  the  dampers  to  stack  are  reversed,  the 
plates  over  burner  openings  reversed  and  the 
second  burner  is  started.  The  first  chamber  then 
becomes  the  preheating  chamber.  The  heat  in 


FURNACES 


131 


Fig.  2.     A   Modern   six  pot   brass   melting   furnace. 


132          THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID  FUEL 

the  flue  to  stack  is  utilized  to  preheat  the  incom- 
ing air.  Note  the  combination  of  the  damper 
or  air  opening  in  flue  with  the  flue  damper.  The 
apparatus  is  so  arranged  that  when  the  flue  dam- 
per is  closed,  a  lug  automatically  raises  the  air 
damper  on  top  of  the  flue  so  that  the  air  is  pre- 
heated while  passing  through  the  flue  to  burner 
end  of  furnace  then  in  operation.  By  this  means 
the  air  necessary  for  perfect  combustion  is  pre- 
heated by  heat  which  would  simply  have  been 
wasted  in  the  ordinary  type  of  furnace  construc- 
tion. Convenient  means  are  provided  for  operat- 
ing both  dampers  and  covers.  This  furnace  is 
constructed  for  various  sizes  and  numbers  of 
crucibles  and  besides  being  efficient  and  econ- 
omical, it  reduces  the  loss  in  metal  to  the 
minimum. 


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FURNACES 


135 


Fig.  i.     A  portable   furnace,   resting  in   fire   door   opening,   firing 
up  a  locomotive  boiler. 


136          THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 

Until  quite  recently  wood  was  used  for  firing 
up  boilers  in  boiler  shops  for  testing  purposes,  or 
in  locomotive  works  for  raising  steam  to  set  pops 
when  the  locomotive  is  completed.  By  using  oil 
instead  of  wood  for  this  purpose  there  is  50% 
saving  in  time  and  cost.  With  an  apparatus  such 
as  shown  in  operation  in  Fig.  1  the  operator  has 
the  fire  under  perfect  control,  and  one  man  can 
look  after  5  or  6  furnaces  at  a  time.  For  the  lar- 
gest Mogul  engine  we  use  either  one  furnace  such 
as  shown  in  Fig.  2  which  gives  a  fan-shaped  in- 
candescent flame  18"  to  10  ft.  in  length,  at  a  point 
6  ft.  from  the  furnace  the  flame  being  4  ft.  wide; 
or  two  of  the  smaller  portable  furnaces  shown  in 
Fig.  3,  which  gives  a  round  incandescent  flame  1 
ft.  long,  3"  in  diameter  to  6  ft.  long  and  about  10" 
in  diameter.  For  a  smaller  size  locomotive  ordi- 
narily one  of  the  furnaces  shown  in  Fig.  3  is  used. 

These  furnaces  are  also  used  for  a  multitude 
of  other  purposes  such  as  setting  up  corners  of 
fire-box  sheets  to  mud-rings;  flanging,  laying  on 
patches,  heating  crown  sheets,  heating  and  weld- 
ing band  rings;  bending  pipe  up  to  16"  diameter 
without  sand  filling;  (straight  pipe  is  laid  on 
bending  table  with  a  shaper  arranged  to  suit 
curve;  one  end  of  pipe  is  clamped,  and  pipe  bent 
after  heat  is  applied  to  outside  of  bend,  thus 


FURNACES 


137 


Fig.  2.     A  portable  furnace  such  as  is  shown  in  operation  in  Fig.  i. 


A — Oil  burner     C — Compressed  air  connection     D — Air  reducing  valve. 

E— Oil  hose.     F— Air  hose. 
Fig.  3.     Portable   Furnace  with   hose  and  tank  on  a  truck. 


138          THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID  FUEL 

stretching  metal  on  the  outside,  without  buck- 
ling inside  of  bend) ;  straightening  bent  frames 
after  a  wreck,  etc.,  etc. 

Referring  to  Fig.  3,  you  will  note  that  com- 
pressed air  (pneumatic  tool  pressure)  is  used  to 
operate  this  equipment.  The  full  pressure  is  used 
through  the  burner  to  atomize  the  fuel  and  dis- 
tribute the  heat,  but  the  air  used  to  force  the  fuel 
from  the  tank  to  burner  passes  through  a  reducing 
valve  which  reduces  it  from  pneumatic  tool  pres- 
sure to  10  Ibs.  on  the  tank.  To  safeguard  human 
life  this  pressure  reducer  is  most  essential. 


FURNACES 


139 


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140          THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID  FUFT 


A— the    insert    (or    Dutchman)      2.     Furnace    in    operation. 


3-     Note  the  constancy  of  heat 
and  perfect  combustion. 


4-     A — The   perfect   weld. 


5-     The  little  giant  which  did  the  trick. 


FURNACES  141 

There  are  three  ways  of  welding  locomotive 
frames.  Thermit  and  Oxy-acetylene  are  efficient 
but  very  costly,  while  with  oil  in  about  40  min- 
utes with  a  few  gallons  of  oil,  a  perfect  weld  is 
made.  Of  course  the  expense  entailed  for  labor 
in  making  the  weld  is  the  same  in  either  case. 
Complete  story  of  a  perfect  weld  with  oil  is  shown 
in  Figs.  1,  2,  3,  4  and  5. 

The  oil  furnace  shown  in  Fig.  5  is  operated 
with  a  small  quantity  of  compressed  air  and  may 
be  used  for  various  other  purposes,  such  as  flang- 
ing, laying  on  patches  and  laps,  heating  crown 
sheets,  firing  up  and  testing  boilers  in  boiler 
shops;  brazing  and  filling  castings,  ladle  heating, 
melting  or  keeping  metals  hot  in  foundries;  braz- 
ing, annealing  and  heating  of  all  kinds  in  copper 
shops;  removing  propeller  wheels,  straightening 
and  bending  on  board  vessel  rudder  frames,  stern 
posts,  keel,  etc.,  pipe  bending,  etc.;  melting  metals 
in  small  quantities  for  laboratory  tests,  etc.,  heat- 
ing rails  for  bending,  etc. 


142          THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 


Portable    furnace    brazing    exhaust    pipe    of    automobile    engine. 

This  furnace  is  mounted  on  a  5  ft.  standard  so  that  the  apparatus 
can  be  adjusted  to  any  height  or  angle  needed  for  all  kinds  of  heat- 
ing purposes  where  it  is  desired  to  heat  a  small  portion  of  the  metal. 
The  furnace  may  be  removed  from  the  stand  and  used  as  a  blow 
pipe  for  straightening  or  setting  up  work  difficult  of  access. 

The  tiny  furnace  is  lined  with  refractory  material.  This  be- 
comes heated  lily-white  and  insures  a  constant  steady  flame  even 
when  the  oil  supply  is  cut  very  low.  With  apparatus  having  a  metal 
combustion  chamber  not  lined  with  refractory  material  there  is  al- 
ways more  or  less  difficulty  with  the  fire  not  burning  steadily.  The 
(refractory  material  also  aids  combustion  and  prevents  oil  being 
thrown  out  with  the  flame. 


FURNACES 


143 


Hand  Torches,  made  in  various  sizes,  are  very  economical  and 
efficient  for  all  classes  of  light  heating  purposes,  such  as  skin-dry- 
ing moulds,  lighting  cupolas,  heating  tires,  light  brazing,  burning 
paint  off  steel  cars,  etc. 


144 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 


Portable   Asphalt    Mixer   equipped   with    oil   burner. 

For  rotary  dryers  in  either  portable  or  sta- 
tionary asphalt  plants,  it  is  most  essential  that  the 
burner  be  capable  of  atomizing  any  gravity  of 
liquid  fuel  for  in  some  localities  you  can  get  fuel 
oil,  other  places  heavy  crude  oil,  while  in  other 
localities  nothing  but  oil  tar  from  a  gas  works 
may  be  obtainable.  Burning  liquid  fuel  in  the 
vertical  or  other  type  of  boiler  used  to  operate  a 
portable  asphalt  plant  is  a  great  convenience  and 
it  eliminates  the  smoke  nuisance. 


FURNACES 


145 


Equipment  of  Ore  or  Sand  Roaster  and  Dryer. 
Oil   is   particularly  adapted   for  all  kinds   of  ore   roasters   and  is 
especially  valuable   for   desulphurizing  iron   ores   for   it   enables  the 
operator    to    attain    and    maintain    the    temperature    required    at    all 
times. 


Rotary   Cement   Kiln   Equipment. 


146          THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID  FUEL 


Fig.    i.     An   ordinary   brick   kiln,   having  40   eyes,   the    capacity 
being  500,000  brick. 

Oil  is  the  ideal  fuel  for  this  class  of  work,  if  you  use  burners 
capable  of  giving  a  very  light  fire  until  the  water  smoke  has  been 
removed  from  the  brick,  after  which  the  burners  should  be  forced 
to  their  maximum  capacity. 


FURNACES 


147 


Fig.  2.  A  bee-hive  brick  kiln  or  terracotta  kiln,  changed  from 
coal  to  oil,  by  simply  covering  over  the  grates  with  a  checker- 
work  of  fire-brick,  and  bricking  up  the  firing  door  as  shown. 


148          THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 


FIRE    BOX    EQUIPTMENT     WHICH   I    RECOMMEND 


OF    POTTERY    K»U1X 


Two  ways  of  equipping  a  pottery  kiln,  the  type  of  construction 
shown  in  the  upper  views  being  the  most  modern. 


FURNACE' 


149 


Glass  Melting  Furnace. 
(Fig.  i) 


150 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 


(Fig.  2) 

In  the  melting,  bending  and  annealing  of 
glass,  oil,  if  properly  installed,  is  a  fuel  which  in- 
sures success.  There  are  many  types  of  glass 
melting  furnaces;  regenerative,  recuperative,  and 
the  ordinary  tank  type.  The  equipment  of  the 
latter  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  1,  while  Fig.  2  shows 
lehrs  80  ft.  long  equipped  with  only  one  burner. 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID  FUEL  151 

CONCLUSION. 

The  author  has  endeavored  to  the  best  of  his 
ability  to  give  as  much  information  to  the  reader 
as  is  possible  without  his  knowing  in  detail  the 
exact  service  of  the  boiler  or  the  furnace,  or  the 
size  of  the  metal  which  is  to  be  heated  or  heat- 
treated  in  the  furnace,  and  has  endeavored  to 
treat  each  subject  from  a  practical  rather  than  a 
technical  standpoint. 

As  the  light  fuel  oils  heretofore  used  in  this 
country  are  now  being  refined  and  redistilled  by 
new  processes  by  which  a  higher  percentage  of 
the  more  volatile  components,  such  as  kerosene 
and  gasoline,  etc.,  are  obtained,  the  price  of  this 
oil  has  materially  raised.  It  is  therefore  necessary 
to  utilize  the  heavy  crude  oil  being  shipped  in 
large  quantities  from  California  and  Mexico,  but 
the  use  of  this  fuel  necessitates  many  changes  in 
the  oil  systems  heretofore  used.  Many  people 
have  attempted  to  burn  this  fuel  and  failed  be- 
cause they  tried  to  use  it  under  the  same  condi- 
tions as  they  did  fuel  oil  of  about  the  same  con- 
sistency as  water.  Investigation  of  these  failures 
has  shown  that  often  a  rotary  pump  has  been  used, 
34"  or  1"  oil  mains  arid  no  means  employed  for 
heating  the  fuel.  Under  such  conditions,  heavy 


]52         THE   SCIENCE   OF   BURNING   LIQUID   FUEL 

oil  can  not  be  successfully  burned,  and  in  many- 
cases,  in  fact,  the  heavy  oil  is  so  viscous  that  it 
could  not  be  pumped  out  of  the  storage  tank. 
Some  firms  when  they  could  not  successfully  burn, 
this  heavy  fuel  with  their  present  equipment,  sim- 
ply condemned  the  fuel,  while  others  of  a  more- 
persevering  and  ingenious  turn  of  mind  delved 
deeper  into  the  subject  or  profited  by  their  neigh- 
bors' experiences,  and  eventually  have  been  able 
to  successfully  utilize  the  heavy  oil.  I  have  heard 
so  many  complaints  about  liquid  fuel  and  have 
seen  it  condemned  so  often  under  conditions 
when  the  supply  system  or  method  of  atomizing 
the  fuel  was  at  fault  that  I  have  compiled  a  list 
which  may  awaken  a  deeper  interest  in  this: 
subject. 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL  153 


Don't  Blame  Oil 

If  YOU   haven't   INCREASED   YOUR  DAILY   OUTPUT; 

If  you  can't  get  50  per  cent.  OVERLOAD  FROM  YOUR  BROILER; 

If  the  SMOKE  ROLLS  OUT  OF  THE  STACK; 

If  you  BURN  out  tfce  TUBES  or  SHELL  of  your  BOILER; 

If  you  have  to  USE  COAL  or  COKE  TO  KEEP  THE  OIL  or  TAR 
BURNING; 

If  you  have  to  use  more  than  ONE  BURNER  IN  A  BOILER  having 
fire-box  less  "than  7  ft.  wide; 

If  you  are  using  MANY  BURNERS  GIVING  FUNNEL-SHAPED 
FLAMES  instead  of  ONE  BURNER  with  a  FAN-SHAPED 
BLAZE; 

If  your  LOCOMOTIVE  DOESN'T  INCREASE  ITS  TONNAGE  or 
steam  well; 

If  you  INJURE  the  LOCOMOTIVE  FIRE-BOX; 

If  you  CAN'T  ATOMIZE  HEAVY  OIL  or  TAR  AS  WELL  AS 
LIGHT  OILS; 

If  your  PURNER  CLOGS  or  CARBONIZES; 

If  the  MOUTH  of  the  burner  WEARS  AWAY; 

If  you  ARE  NOT  GETTING  PERFECT  COMBUSTION; 

If  you  have  NO  SMOKE  but  a  LOSS  OF  FUEL  because  of  an 
EXCESS  OF  OXYGEN; 

If  you  cannot  CONTROL  THE  HEAT  IN  THE  FURNACE; 

If  you  don't  get  REVERBERATORY  MOVEMENT  of  the  HEAT; 

If  the  HEAT  IS  NOT  EVENLY  DISTRIBUTED; 

If  you  have  DIFFICULTY  in  getting  a  WELDING  HEAT; 

If  your  MEN  have  to  WAIT  ON  the  METAL; 

If  you  can't  ATTAIN  and  MAINTAIN  the  REQUIRED  TEMPERA- 
TURE; 

if  you  OXIDIZE  or  SCALE  THE  METAL; 

If  you  can't  get  BETTER  RESULTS  WITH  OIL  than  with  coal,  coke 
or  gas; 

If  you  can't  keep  the  BURNER  LIT  WITH  A  LIGHT  FIRE; 

If  you  use  the  old  style  PAN  SYSTEM  in  your  CRUCIBLE  MELT- 
ING FURNACES; 

If  you  are  troubled  with  SMOKE  PASSING  OUT  OF  FURNACE; 

If  your  CORE  or  MOLD  DRYING  OVENS  are  TOO  HOT  ON  ONE 
END  and  TOO  COLD  AT  THE  OTHER; 

If  your  JAPANNING  OVEN  SMOKES; 

If  you  CAN'T  BRAZE. 

If  you  have  any  of  these  conditions  IN  YOUR  PLANT,  why  blame 
the  fuel?  It  is  because  you  are  BURNING  AT  OIL,  instead  of  really 
burning  it  in  such  a  manner  as  to  effect  PERFECT  COMBUSTION 
.and  UTILIZE  ITS  FULL  CALORIFIC  VALUE. 


INDEX. 


Page 

Air    Furnaces    1 14 

Air,  Quantity  required  for  combustion   24 

Analysis : 

Air  Furnace   Bottom   Sand    45 

Beaumont    (Texas)    Crude    Oil    16 

Brick  for  Crucible  Furnaces 42 

California  Crude  Oil   17 

Coal   60 

Fuel  or  Residuum  Oil 16 

Mexican  Crude  Oil  (Tampico  Fields) 17 

Tar — London  and  from  Dominion  Coal  ....      19 
Annealing  and  Tempering  Furnaces: 

Indirect-fired 89,  90 

Indirect-fired  Car   93 

Overhead  Oil-fired  Car 94 

Muffle 80 

Rotary — Cold  Punched  Nuts,  etc 100 

Rotary  Table 98 

Semi-pit IOI 

Shell    91 

Sheet  Copper  and  Brass 102 

Asphalt  Mixer  (Portable)   144 

Axe  Head  Tempering  Furnace 99 

Billet  Heating  Furnaces in,  112,  113 

Boilers : 

Apparatus  for  Firing  Up  and  Testing.  ...  136,  141 

Babcock  &  Wilcox  (Altman-Taylor)   68 

Coal  and  Oil  or  Tar  Combination  Equipment     57 

Heine 65 

Locomotive  Type — Stationary  Service 61 


156      THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 

Page 

Return  Tubular 71 

Scotch  Marine 63 

Stirling   62 

Vertical • 73 

Bolt  Making 85,  96 

Brass  Melting 125,  129,  131 

Brazing 142 

Bread  Oven 82 

Brick  Kilns   146,  147 

British  Thermal  Unit 17 

Bull  Ladle  Heating 122 

Burners  : 

Gas — Natural  or  Commercial 29 

High  Pressure 23,  56,  58 

Locomotive    46 

Low  Pressure  or  Volume  Air 25 

Manner  of  Lighting 119 

Mechanical   28 

Pulverized  Coal . , 29 

Car-type  Annealers 93,  94 

Case  Hardening  Furnaces 89.  90,  93,  101 

Cement  Kiln   (Rotary) 145 

Centrifugal  Air  Compressor 27,  40 

Coal — Analysis 60 

Combustion  Chambers 85 

Comparison — Various  Kinds  of  Fuels  .  . .  . : 20 

Compressed  Air  Oil  System    38 

Compressed  Air  versus  Steam 26 

Continuous  Billet  Heating   113 

Copper  and  Brass  Annealing 102 

Copper  Refining 126 

Core  Ovens 76,  78 

Crucible  Brass  Melting 129,  131 

Crucible  Steel  Melting  133,  134 

Crucible  Steel  Furnace  Brick 42 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID  FUEL  157 

Page 

Die  Hardening 108 

Drop  Forging no 

Dryer  and  Roaster  (Sand  and  Ore) 145 

Electric  Locomotive  (first)   2 

Enameling    ...  * 79 

Ferrite 88 

Fireman's  Regulating  Quadrant 50 

Firing  up  and  Testing  Boilers 136,  141 

Flanging  Furnace • .  . . .  87 

Flue  Welding  Furnace 106 

Forging  Furnaces 87,  108,  in 

Frame  Welding  (Locomotive)   141 

Glass  Melting,  Bending  and  Annealing.  . . .     149,  150 

Gravity  Feed  Oil  System 33 

Hand  Torches • 143 

Heat-Treatment    : 88 

Inverted  Arches   (Locomotive)    49 

Japanning  Oven 79 

Kilns : 

Brick    146,  147 

Ore  Roaster 145 

Pottery    • .  .  148 

Rotary  Cement   145 

Laboratory  Furnace 141 

Ladle  Heating 122,  123,  124 

Lead  Bath  Furnace  105 

Lehrs   150 

Locomotive : 

Burner 46 

Fireman's  Regulating  Quadrant   50 

First  Electric 2 

Frame  Welding 141 

Inverted  Arches 49 


158     THE  SCIENCE   OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL 

Page 

Oil  Regulating  Cock 50 

Oil  Superheater 53 

Oil  Tank 51 

Stationary  Boiler 61 

Testing  Apparatus   136 

Low  Pressure  Oil  Burner 25 

Martinsite 92 

Mechanical  Burners   2& 

Melting  Furnaces   125 

Millet  Ovens 77 

Mould  Drying 75,  78 

Mounted  Burner 56,  58 

Muffle  Furnace,  annealing,  baking,  enamel,  etc. .  .     80 
Multiple  Ladle  Heating  Furnace 123,  124 

Oil : 

Analysis 16 

Bath  Furnace 105, 

Discovery   15 

Production   15 

Pumps 35 

Regulating  Cock 41 

Superheater   53 

Tank 33,  51 

Open  Hearth  Furnace 120 

Overhead  Oil-fired  Furnace   94 

Pearlite   • 88: 

Pipe  Bending 136 

Pipe  Flange  Welding 107 

Plate  Heating  Furnaces 103,  104 

Portable  Furnaces • 109 

Pottery  Kiln    148 

Pulverized  Coal  Burner 29 

Pumps -     35 

Pumping  Systems 34,  36 

Pyrometers • 81 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  BURNING  LIQUID   FUEL        159- 

Page 

Regulating  Cocks   41 

Return  Tubular  Boiler 71 

Rivet  Heating 108,  109^ 

Roasters    • 145 

Rotary  Furnaces 98,  100 

Rotary  Kilns 145 

Rudder  Welding 139 

Sand  Dryer • . .  145, 

Scotch  Marine  Boiler 63 

Scrap  Iron  Welding 7 

Semi-pit,  Bung  Arch  Annealing  Furnace •  101 

Shaft  Heating  Furnace in 

Shell  Annealing  Furnace 91 

Shingling  Furnace 87" 

Soaking  Pits 121 

Solution  Bath  Furnace 105. 

Steel  Heat-Treatment  •     88,  95 

Superheater  (Oil) 53: 

Tangential  Flame  73, 

Tanks    33,    51 

Tar    19 

Thermometers   31 

Tool  Dressing 96,  97- 

Valveless  Oil  System 36- 

Vanstoning 107 

Vertical  Boiler 73 

Welding: 

Locomotive  Frame 141 

Rudder   139. 

Scrap  Iron 7,  1 12- 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DA 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETU 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENAL 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOUR 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  D 
OVERDUE. 


MAY  Z\   T<3b 

JAN  20  1944 

MAR     2  IHflO 

WIHl\       ff    I3OU 

ceo    ft  ii    toon 

AM*,  win.     f  EB    2  U    13oU 

LD  21-100r 

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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


